SOCRATES

, the chief of the ancient philosophers, was born at Alopece, a small village of Attica, in the 4th year of the 77th olympiad, or about 467 years before Christ. Sophroniscus, his father, being a statuary or carver of images in stone, our author followed the same profession for some time, for a subsistence. But being naturally averse to this profession, he only followed it when necessity compelled him; and upon getting a little before-hand, would for a while lay it aside. These intermissions of his trade were bestowed upon philosophy, to which he was naturally addicted; and this being observed by Crito, a rich philosopher of Athens, Socrates was at length taken from his shop, and put into a condition of philosophising at his ease and leisure.

He had various instructors in the sciences, as Anaxagoras, Archylaus, Damon, Prodicus, to whom may be added the two learned women Diotyma and Aspasia, of the last of whom he learned rhetoric: of Euenus he learned poetry; of Ichomachus, husbandry; and of Theodorus, geometry.

At length he began himself to teach; and was so eloquent, that he could lead the mind to approve or disapprove whatever he pleased; but never used this talent for any other purpose than to conduct his fellow citizens into the path of virtue. The academy of the Lycæum, and a pleasant meadow without the city on the side of the river Ilyssus, were places where he chiefly delivered his instructions, though it seems he was never out of his way in that respect, as he made use of all times and places for that purpose.

He is represented by Xenophon as excellent in all kinds of learning, and particularly instances arithmetic, geometry, and astrology or astronomy: Plato mentions natural philosophy; Idomeneus, rhetoric; Laertius, medicine. Cicero affirms, that by the testimony of all the learned, and the judgment of all Greece, he was, as well in wisdom, acuteness, politeness, and subtlety, as in eloquence, variety, and richness, in whatever he applied himself to, without exception, the prince of all.

It has been observed by many, that Socrates little affected travel; his life being wholly spent at home, excepting when he went out upon military services. In the Peloponnesian war he was thrice personally engaged: upon which occasions it is said he outwent all the soldiers in hardiness: and if at any time, saith Alcibiades, as it often happens in war, the provisions failed, there were none who could bear the want of meat and drink like Socrates; yet, on the other hand, in times of feasting, he alone seemed to enjoy them; and though of himself he would not drink, yet being invited, he far outdrank every one, though he was never seen intoxicated.

To this great philosopher Greece was principally indebted for her glory and splendor. He formed the manners of the most celebrated persons of Greece, as Alcibiades, Xenophon, Plato, &c. But his great services and the excellent qualities of his mind could not secure him from envy, persecution, and calumny. The thirty tyrants forbad his instructing youth; and as he derided the plurality of the Pagan deities, he was accused of impiety. The day of trial being come, Socrates made his own defence, without procuring an advocate, as the custom was, to plead for him. He did not defend himself with the tone and language of a suppliant or guilty person, but, as if he were master of the judges themselves, with freedom, firmness, and some degree of contumacy. Many of his friends also spoke in his behalf; and lastly, Plato went up into the chair, and began a speech in these words: “Though I, Athenians, am the youngest of those that come up into this place”—but they stopped him, crying out, “of those that go down,” which he was thereupon constrained to do; and then proceeding to vote, they condemned Socrates to death, which was effected by means of poison, when he was 70 years of age. Plato gives an affecting account of his imprisonment and death, and concludes, “This was the end of the best, the wisest, and the justest of men.” And that account of it by Plato, Tully professes, he could never read without tears.

As to the person of Socrates, he is represented as very homely; he was bald, had a dark complexion, a flat nose, eyes sticking out, and a severe downcast look. But the defects of his person were amply compensated by the virtues and accomplishments of his mind. Socrates was indeed a man of all virtues; and so remarkably frugal, that how little soever he had, it was always enough. When he was amidst a great variety of rich and expensive objects, he would often say to himself, “How many things are there which I do not want!”

Socrates had two wives, one of which was the noted Xantippe; whom Aulus Gellius describes as an accursed froward woman, always chiding and scolding, by day and by night, and whom it was said he made choice of as a trial and exercise of his temper. Several instances are recorded of her impatience and his forbearance. One day, before some of his friends, she fell into the usual extravagances of her passion; when he, without answering a word, went abroad with them: but on his going out of the door, she ran up into the chamber, and threw down water upon his head; upon which, turning to his friends, “Did not I tell you | (says he), that after so much thunder we should have rain?” Another time she pulled his cloak from his shoulders in the open forum; and some of his friends advising him to beat her, “Yes (says he), that while we two fight, you may all stand by, and cry, Well done, Socrates; to him, Xantippe.”

They who affirm that Socrates wrote nothing, mean only in respect to his philosophy; for it is attested and allowed, that he assisted Euripides in composing tragedies, and was the author of some pieces of poetry. Dialogues also and epistles are ascribed to him: but his philosophical disputations were committed to writing only by his scholars; and that chiefly by Plato and Xenophon. The latter set the example to the rest in doing it first, and also with the greatest punctuality; as Plato did it with the most liberty, intermixing so much of his own, that it is hardly possible to know what part belongs to each. Hence Socrates, hearing him recite his Lysis, cried out, “How many things doth this young man feign of me!” Accordingly, the greatest part of his philosophy is to be found in the writings of Plato. To Socrates is ascribed the first introduction of moral philosophy. Man having a twofold relation to things divine and human, his doctrines were with regard to the former metaphysical, to the latter moral. His metaphysical opinions were chiefly, that, There are three principles of all things, God, matter, and idea. God is the universal intellect; matter the subject of generation and corruption; idea, an incorporeal substance, the intellect of God; God the intellect of the world. God is one, perfect in himself, giving the being and well-being of every creature.—That God, not chance, made the world and all creatures, is demonstrable from the reasonable disposition of their parts, as well for use as defence; from their care to preserve themselves, and continue their species.—That he particularly regards man in his body, appears from his noble upright form, and from the gift of speech; in his soul, from the excellency of it above others.—That God takes care of all creatures, is demonstrable from the benefit he gives them of light, water, fire, and fruits of the earth in due season. That he hath a particular regard of man, from the destination of all plants and creatures for his service; from their subjection to man, though they may exceed him ever so much in strength; from the variety of man's sense, accommodated to the variety of objects, for necessity, use, and pleasure; from reason, by which he discourseth through reminiscence from sensible objects; from speech, by which he communicates all he knows, gives laws, and governs states. Finally, that God, though invisible himself, at once sees all, hears all, is every where, and orders all.

As to the other great object of metaphysical research, the soul, Socrates taught, that it is pre-existent to the body, endued with the knowledge of eternal ideas, which in its union to the body it loseth, as stupefied, until awakened by discourse from sensible objects; on which account, all its learning is only reminiscence, a recovery of its first knowledge. That the body, being compounded, is dissolved by death; but that the soul, being simple, passeth into another life, incapable of corruption. That the souls of men are divine. That the souls of the good after death are in a happy state, united to God in a blessed inaccessible place; that the bad in convenient places suffer condign punishment.

All the Grecian sects of philosophers refer their origin to the discipline of Socrates; particularly the Platonics, Peripatetics, Academics, Cyrenaics, Stoics, &c.