, one of the revivers of literature in the fifteenth century, was
, one of the revivers of literature in the fifteenth century, was born, not at Constantinople, as some writers assert, but at Trebisond, in 1389, a date which is ascertained by his epitaph written by himself, but as all the copies of this epitaph do not agree, Bandini, one of his biographers, gives 1395, as the time of his birth. He entered into the order of St. Basil, and passed twentyone years in a monastery of Peloponnesus, employed in the study of divinity and polite literature. The philosopher Gemistus Pletho was one of his masters. In 1438, when the emperor John Paleologus formed the design of going to the council of Ferrara, to re-unite the Greek with the Latin church, he drew Bessarion from his retirement, made him bishop of Nice, and engaged him to accompany him into Italy with Pletho, Marcus Eugenius, archbishop of Ephesus, the patriarch of Constantinople, and several other Greeks eminent for talents or rank. In the sittings of this council, the archbishop of Ephesus distinguished himself by his powers of reasoning, and Bessarion by the charms of his eloquence, but unfortunately from being rivals in talents, they soon became enemies. Eugenius was not favourable to the scheme of uniting the Greek and Latin churches; and Bessarioii, after having been of a contrary opinion, declared for the Latins, which was the side the emperor took. The union was accordingly announced, and in December 1439, pope Eugenius IV. to reward the zeal of Bessarion, created him a cardinal priest. ‘ Being now, in consequence of his new dignity, fixed in, Italy, a step which was at the same time rendered necessary by the commotions in Greece, where he was very unpopular, and the union universally rejected, Bessarion returned to the studious and simple life he had led in his convent in the Peloponnesus. His house became the resort of the learned, and when he appeared abroad, his train was composed of such men as Argyropulus, Philelphus, Valla, Theodore Gaza, George of Trebisonde, and Calderino. He obtained the confidence and friendship of several popes. Nicholas V. appointed him archbishop of S’ponto, and cardinal-bishop; and Pius II. in 1463, conferred upon him the title of Patriarch of Constantinople. On the death of Nicholas V. the college of cardinals would have elected him his successor, but this purpose was defeated by the intrigues of cardinal Alain. Some years after, Bessarion, was likely to have succeeded Paul II. but to accomplish this, it was necessary to secure the vote of the cardinal Orsini by an act of injustice, which he refused. Orsini, however, tendered his vote on the same terms to the cardinal de Rovere, who had none of Bessarion’s scruples, and was elected. Paul Jovius tells a foolish story of Bessarion’s having lost this election, by the blundering reply of his servant; and Gibbon, credulous enough when the object of belief is worth nothing, has repeated it after him, nor knowing that our countryman Hody had amply refuted it.
, one of the most eminent Italian poets and scholars, and one of the revivers of literature in Europe, was born in 1313. His
, one of the most eminent Italian
poets and scholars, and one of the revivers of literature in
Europe, was born in 1313. His father was a merchant of
Florence, when to be a merchant was the first of situations,
and his family was originally of Certaldo, a village about
twenty miles from Florence, which accounts for Boccaccio
always adding to his name the words “da Certaldo.
” He was
not, therefore, the son of a peasant, as reported by some
biographers, but it cannot be denied that he was the fruit
of an illicit connection which his father formed at Paris,
where he happened to be on commercial 'business, and
where this son was born, and it appears, likewise, that his
father was not very rich. Being, however, brought early
to Florence, his education commenced there, and he is
said to hav e evinced a decided attachment to poetry before
he was ten years old, about which time his father placed
him in a merchant’s counting-house, to learn- arithmetic
and book-keeping, that he might be the sooner enabled to
provide for him among his connections. Some years after,
this merchant took him to Paris, where he went to set up
in business, and for six years, during which Boccaccio
resided in his house, endeavoured to reconcile him to
trade; but finding after every experiment, either by persuasion or constraint, that this was impossible, he at length
sent him home to his father.
, a voluminous writer, and one of the, revivers of literature in Germany, was born at Zurich,
, a voluminous writer, and one of the, revivers of literature in Germany, was born at Zurich, July 19, 1693, and notwithstanding his father’s design to bring him up to the church, or for trade, he seemed born for the sciences, and particularly the belles lettres. He concealed his dislike, however, for the ministry, until the time when he might have been admitted, and then declined proceeding any farther. His father then would have him pursue trade, and in 1717 sent him to Bergamo for that purpose. This being of course as disagreeable to him as the study of divinity, he returned home after two years, his predilection for poetry growing more and more upon him. Ovid’s Metamorphoses, a translation of which fell in his way, filled his head with poetical images, and the English Spectator formed his morals, while he studied his philosophy in Bayle and Montaigne. The German language was at this time in a barbarous state; literature was at a low ebb, and the pedantic studies of the schools were not to the liking of such a youth as Bodmer. Finding nothing, therefore, to read in his own language, he confined himself to the classics of antiquity, and gave up every other employment, except the study of the history and politics of Swisserland. In history, however, he looked only for men, manners, and language; and was desirous of forming from it a system of psychology.
, one of the revivers of literature, and an able grammarian, took
, one of the revivers of literature, and an able grammarian, took his name from the village of Barzizza, near Bergamo, where he was born in 1370. It is thought that he studied at Bergamo, and kept a private school there. He afterwards became professor of the belles lettres at Pavia, Venice, Padua, and Milan. He was in this last mentioned city in 1418, when pope Martin V. passed through in his return from the council of Constance. Barzizza was on this occasion appointed to pay him the compliments of the city, and the two universities of Pavia and Padua having sent orators to the pope, he was also' employed in preparing their intended speeches. He was during the rest of his life patronized by the duke Philip-Maria-Visconti, and enjoyed the esteem due to his learning and talents until his death at Milan about the end of 1430.
, a man eminently learned in his day> and one of the revivers of literature, was born at Bristol in 1442,
, a man eminently learned in his
day> and one of the revivers of literature, was born at
Bristol in 1442, and educated at Winchester-school. He
was elected thence to New college, Oxford, in 1467; and
in 1479, presented by the warden and fellows to the rectory of Newton-Longville, in Buckinghamshire. But his
residence being mostly at Oxford, the society of Magdalen
college made him their divinity reader, about the beginning of Richard the Illd’s reign; and that king corning
soon after to Oxford, he had the honour to hold a disputation before him, with which his majesty was so
pleased, that he rewarded him graciously. In 1485 he
was made a prebendary of Lincoln, and in 1488 he quitted
his reader’s place at Magdalen college, in order to travel
into foreign countries; for though he might be reckoned a
great master of the Greek and Lati languages in England,
where the former especially was then scarcely understood
at all, yet he well knew that a more perfect knowledge of
it might be attained; and accordingly he went into Italy,
and studied there some time under Demetrius Chalcondyles
and Politian. He returned to England, and fixed himself
in Exeter college, at Oxford, in 1491, where he took the
degree of B. D. Here too he publicly taught the Greek
language, and was the first who introduced a better pronunciation of it than had been known in this island before.
But the introduction of this language alarming many, as a
most dangerous innovation, the university divided itself
into two factions/distinguished by the appellation of Greeks
and Trojans, who bore each other a violent animosity, and
proceeded to open hostilities. Anthony Wood says, “I
cannot but wonder when I think upon it, to what a strange
ignorance were the scholars arrived, when, as they would
by no means receive it, but rather scoff and laugh at it;
some against the new pronunciation of it, which was endeavoured to be settled; others at the language itself,
having not at all read any thing thereof. It is said that
there were lately a company of good fellows (Cambridge men as 'tis reported) who, either out of hatred to the
Greek tongue, or good letters, or merely to laugh and
sport, joined together and called themselves Trojans: one,
who was the senior, and wiser than the rest, called himself
Priam, another Hector, a third Parys, and the rest by
some ancient Trojan names who, after a jocular way, did
oppose aa Grecians, the students of the Greek tongue.
”
In this situation Grocyn was, when Erasmus came ta
Oxford; and if he was not this great man’s tutor, yet he
certainly assisted him in attaining a more perfect knowledge of the Greek. He was, however, very friendly toErasmus, and did him many kind offices, as introducing
him to archbishop Warham, &c. He also boarded him
gratis in his house, although he was by no means in affluent circumstances. We cannot be surprized therefore
that Erasmus speaks of him often in a strain which shews
that he entertained the most sincere regard for him, as well
as the highest opinion of his abilities, learning, and integrity. About 1590 he resigned his living, being then made
master of Allhallows college, at Maidstone,in Kent, though
he continued still to live mostly at Oxford. Grocyn had
no esteem for Plato, but applied himself intensely to Aristotle, whose whole works he had formed a design of translating, in conjunction with William Latimer, Linacre, and
More, but did not pursue it. While his friend Cotet was
dean of St. Paul’s, Grocyn gave a remarkable evidence of
the candour and ingenuousness of his temper. He read in
St. Paul’s cathedral a public lecture upon the book of
Dionysius Areopagita, commonly called “Hierarchia Ecclesiastica;
” it being customary at that time for the public lecturers, both in the universities, and in the cathedral
thurches, to read upon any book, rather than upon the
scriptures, till dean Colet reformed that practice. Grocyn,
in the preface to his lecture, declaimed with great warmth
against those who either denied or doubted of the authority of the book on which he was reading. But after he
had continued to read a few weeks, and had more thoroughly examined the matter, he entirely changed hi
sentiments; and openly and candidly declared that he had
been in an error; and that the said book, in his judgment,
was spurious, and never written by him who, in the Acts
of the Apostles, is called Dionysius the Areopagite. But
when dean Colet had introduced the custom of reading
lectures upon some part of the scriptures at his cathedral,
he engaged Grocyn, according to Dr. Knight, as one of
the most learned and able men he could meet with, in that
useful employment.
, surnamed Veronese, the first branch of a family celebrated in the republic of letters, and one of the revivers of literature, was born at Verona in 1370. After
, surnamed Veronese, the first
branch of a family celebrated in the republic of letters,
and one of the revivers of literature, was born at Verona
in 1370. After being taught Latin by John of Ravenna,
he went to Constantinople, with the sole view of learning
Greek in the school of Emanuel Chrysoloras, who had not
then come to Italy. Pontico Virunio, in his life of Chrysoloras, says that Guarino was of an advanced age when he
set out for Constantinople, and that he returned to Italy
with a large collection of Greek manuscripts, the loss of
which by shipwreck so affected him, that his hair turned
white in one night; but Maffei and Apostolo Zeno have
justly considered this as a fable. It appears, on the other
hand, on comparing various circumstances, that Guarino
was very young when he went into Greece, and was only
twenty years of age when he returned. After this return
he first kept school at Florence, and afterwards successively at Verona, Padua, Bologna, Venice, and Ferrara, in
which last city he resided longest. Nicolas III. of Este
had invited him thither in 1429 to superintend the education of his son Lionel. Six or seven years after, he was
appointed professor of Greek and Latin in the university of
Ferrara. This office he filled until the assembling of the
grand council, to which the emperor John Paleologus came,
accompanied with several Greeks, who found Guarino. sufficient employment, as he mentions in his letters, and on
the council being removed to Florence, he accompanied
them thither as interpreter between the Latins and Greeks.
He returned again to Ferrara, where he held his professorship until his death in 1460. His principal works consist
of Latin translations from Greek authors; particularly of
many of Plutarch’s lives, part of Plutarch’s morals, and
Strabo’s geography. Of this author he at first translated
only ten books, by order of pope Nicholas V.; the other
seven were translated by Gregory of Typhernuin, and in
this state the work was first printed at Rome in 1470, folio.
But, at the request of the Venetian senator Marcello,
Guarino made a translation of these seven books, of which
there are manuscript copies at Venice, Modena, &c. Maffei, in his “Verona Illustrata,
” mentions also a translation
of the whole seventeen in the hand-writing of Guarino,
which was at one time in the library of the senator Soranzo
at Venice. To his translation of Plutarch’s lives, he added
those of Aristotle and Plato. He also compiled a Greek
grammar, “Em. Chrysolorae erotemata lingusc Graecse, in
compendium redacta, a Guarino Veronesi,
” Ferrar. Grammatical institutiones,
”
without date or place, but printed at Verona, Carmina ditiferentialia,
” “Liber de Diphtongis,
”
&c. Guarino also wrote commentaries or notes on various
authors, both Greek and Latin, among the latter on Cicero’s
orations and Persius’s satires, and was the author of various
Latin orations delivered at Verona, Ferrara, and other
places, and of some Latin poems, and a great number of
letters which have not been printed. He was the first who
recovered the poems of Catullus, a manuscript which was
mouldering in a garret, and almost destroyed, and rendered
the whole legible, with the exception of a very few verses.
If it be thought that even all this is insufficient to justify
the high reputation which Guarino enjoyed in his lifetime, and for ages afterwards, we must add that, independently of rendering these services to the cause of learning,
which were of great importance at its revival, Guarino derived no small share of fame from the vast number of scholars whom he formed, with a like taste for classical literature, which they dispersed throughout all Europe. Guarino, likewise, was one of the most indefatigable student*
of his time. Even in old age his memory was
extraordinary, and his application incessant. He took little nourishment and little sleep, and rarely went abroad, yet he preserved his strength and faculties to the last. By his wife he
had at least twelve children, two of whom followed his steps
Jerome became secretary to Alphonso, king of Naples
and Baptist, or Battista, rather better known, was professor of Greek and Latin at Ferrara, like his fathev, and
like him educated some eminent scholars, among whom
were Giraldi and Aldus Manutius. He left a collection of
Latin poetry, “Baptists Guarini Veronensis poemata Latina,
” Modena, De ordine
docendi ac studendi,
” without place or date; but there is
a subsequent edition of Heidelberg, 1489. He wrote also
other treatises, translations from the Greek, discourses,
and letters, which latter remain in manuscript. It is to
him we owe the first edition of the Commentaries of Servius on Virgil; and he assisted his father in recovering and
making legible the manuscript of Catullus above mentioned.
, one of the revivers of literature, was a. native of Candia, and
, one of the revivers of literature,
was a. native of Candia, and came to Italy about the beginning of the sixteenth century, where he understood
that encouragement would be given to men of ability in
the languages and grammatical studies. After exhibiting
proofs of his talents at Venice, the senate appointed him
to teach publicly at Padua in 1503, and a great concourse
of scholars gathered around him, until his labours were
interrupted by the war. He had been the disciple of Lascaris, who recommended him to the notice of Leo X.; and
that pontiff addressed a letter to him when he was at Venice in 1513, requesting that he would invite from Greece
ten young men, of education and virtuous disposition, who
might instruct the Italians in the proper use and knowledge
of the Greek language. This establishment accordingly
was formed, and Lascaris was placed at the head of it. At
this time Musurus was finishing the first edition of the
works of Plato, in Greek, which was printed by Aldus in
1513. To this edition Musurus prefixed some Greek
verses that have been much admired, and published separately, by Muncker, Amsterdam, 1676, 4to, by our
Foster, in his ingenious work on the Greek accents (see Foster), and more recently at Cambridge, by Samuel
Butler, A. B. 1797. It is also reprinted in Mr. Rescue’s
“Leo X.
” with an elegant English translation.
, one of the. revivers of literature, was the son of Guccio Bracciolini,
, one of the. revivers of literature, was the son of Guccio Bracciolini, and was born in
1380, at Terranuova, a small town situated in the territory
of the republic of Florence, not far from Arezzo. He
inherited from his father who had been a notary, but had
lost his property, no advantages of rank or fortune, yet
in a literary point of view, some circumstances of his birth
were singularly propitious. At the close of the fourteenth
century, the dawn of literature was appearing, and the
city of Florence was distinguished by the zeal with which
its principal inhabitants cultivated and patronized the liberal arts. It was consequently the favourite resort of the
ablest scholars of the time; some of whom were induced
by the offer of considerable salaries, to undertake the task
of public instruction. In this celebrated school, Poggio
applied himself to the study of the Latin tongue, under
the direction of John of Ravenna; and of Greek, under
Manuel Chrysoloras. When he had acquired a competent
knowledge of these languages, he quitted Florence, and went
to Rome, where his literary reputation introduced him to
the notice of pope Boniface IX. who took him into his service, and promoted him to the office of writer of the apostolic letters, probably about 1402. At this time Italy was
convulsed by war and faction, and in that celebrated ecclesiastical feud, which is commonly distinguished by the
name of the “schism of the West,
” no fewer than six of
Poggio’s patrons, the popes, were implicated in its progress and consequences. In 1414 we find Poggio attending
the infamous pope John to Constance, in quality of secretary; but as this pontiff fled from the council, his household was dispersed, and Poggio remained some time at
Constance. Having a good deal of leisure, he employed
his vacant hours in studying the Hebrew language, under
the direction of a Jew who had been converted to the
Christian faith. The first act of the council of Constance
was the trial of pope John, who was convicted of the most
atrocious vices incident to the vilest corruption of human
nature, for which they degraded him from his dignity, and
deprived him of his liberty. It was also by this council
that John Huss, the celebrated Bohemian reformer, was
examined and condemned, and that Jerome of Prague, in
1416, was tried. Poggio, who was present at Jerome’s
trial, gave that very eloquent account of the martyr’s behaviour which we have already noticed (See Jerome Of Prague), and which proves, in the opinion of Poggio’s biographer, that he possessed a heart “which daily intercourse
with bjgoted believers and licentious hypocrites could not
deaden to the impulses of humanity.
”
, one of the revivers of literature, was born at Valentia, in Spain,
, one of the revivers of literature,
was born at Valentia, in Spain, in 1492. He learned grammar and classical learning in his own country, and went to
Paris to study logic and scholastic philosophy, the subtleties
and futility of which he had soon the good sense to discover, and when he removed from Paris to Louvain, he
there published a book against them, entitled “Contra
Pseudo-Dialecticos.
” At Louvain he undertook the office
of a preceptor, and exerted himself with great ability and
success in correcting barbarism, chastising the corruptors
of learning, and reviving a taste for true science and elegant letters. This so raised his reputation that he was
chosen to be preceptor to William de Croy, afterwards
archbishop of Toledo, and cardinal, who died in 1521. In
July 1517 he was made, though then at Louvain, one of
the first fellows of Corpus Christi college, in Oxford, by
the founder; his fame being spread over England, as well
on account of his great parts and learning as for the peculiar respect and favour with which queen Catherine of
Spain honoured him. In 1522 he dedicated his “Commentary upon St. Augustin de Civitate Dei
” to HenryVlII;
which, says Wood, was so acceptable to that prince, that
cardinal Wolsey, by his order, invited him over to England; but this must be a mistake, for in a letter of the cardinal’s to the university in 1519, mention is made of his
being then reader of rhetoric, and that by the cardinal’s
appointment. He was also employed to teach the princess
Mary polite literature and the Latin tongue: it was for
her use that he wrote “De Ratione studii puerilis,
” which
he addressed to his patroness queen Catharine, in 1523;
as he did the same year “De institutione fceminae Christiance,
” written by her command. During his stay in
England he resided a good deal at Oxford, where he was
admitted doctor of law, and read lectures in that and the
belles lettres. King Henry conceived such an esteem for
him, that iie accompanied his queen to Oxford, in order
to be present at the lectures which he read to the princess
Mary, who resided there: yet, when Vives afterwards
presumed to speak and write against the divorce of Catherine, Henry considered his conduct as criminal, and
confined him six months in prison. Having obtained his
liberty, he returned to the Netherlands, and resided at
Bruges, where he married, and taught the belles lettres as
long as he lived. He died in 1537, or, according toThuanus, 1541.