order he had contracted in his exile. His father, Cavalcante de' Cavalcanti, passed for an Epicurean philosopher, and an atheist, and was therefore placed by Dante, in his Inferno,
, an Italian scholar of the thirteenth century, was born of one of the most illustrious and
powerful families in Florence. He was a zealous Ghibelin,
and became more so by marrying the daughter of Farinara
Uherti, then at the head of that faction. Curso Donati,
chief of the Guelphs, a man in much credit then at Florence, and the bitter personal enemy of Guido, formed a
plan to assassinate him, and although Guido got notice of
this, and made preparations for defence, he saved his life
only by flight. The state of Florence, tired with such disgraceful dissentions, banished the chiefs of both parties.
Guido was sent to Sarzana, or Serezano, where the bad
air affecting his health, he obtained leave to return to
Florence, and died there in 1300, of the disorder he had
contracted in his exile. His father, Cavalcante de' Cavalcanti, passed for an Epicurean philosopher, and an atheist,
and was therefore placed by Dante, in his Inferno, among
that class of the condemned. The son, however, although
likewise a philosopher, appears not to have belonged to the
same sect. On one occasion, when the attempt was made
to assassinate him, he made a pilgrimage to St. James of
Galicia: but of this, whatever might be the motive, love
was the consequence, for at Toulouse he met with his
Mandetta, a lady whom he has made the subject of his
love verses. His poems, elegant, correct, and occasionally
tinged with a tender melancholy, consist of sonnets and
canzones, and compose the sixth book of the collection of
ancient Italian poets, printed by the Giuuti, 1527, 8vo, a
rare book. His “Canzone d'Amore
” was often printed with
the comments of his countrymen, particularly at Florence,
1568, 8vo; Venice, 1585, 4to; and Sienna, 1602, 8vo.
, an ingenious philosopher, was the son of an eminent physician of Naples, where he was
, an ingenious philosopher, was
the son of an eminent physician of Naples, where he was
born in 1749. His original destination was to be initiated
at London in mercantile pursuits, and he came to England with that view, in 1771, but the study of nature displaying superior attractions, he was seduced from the
accompting-house, to embrace the leisure of a philosophical retreat; and acquired a well -merited reputation as
a digester and elucidator of philosophical discoveries. In
1779, he was admitted a member of the Neapolitan academy of sciences, as well as of the royal society of London.
To the latter he contributed many ingenious papers and
was the author of the following separate publications 1.
“A complete Treatise of Electricity in theory and practice, with original experiments,
” An Essay on the theory and practice of Medical Electricity,
” A Treatise
on the nature and properties of Air, and other permanently elastic fluids, with an Introduction to Chemistry,
”
The History and Practice of Aerostation,
” Mineralogical Tables,
” folio, accompanied with an 8vo explanatory pamphlet, 1785.
6. “A Treatise on Magnetism, in theory and practice,
with original experiments,
” Description
and use of the Telescopical Mother-of-Pearl Micrometer,
invented by T. C.
” a pamphlet, An
Essay on the Medicinal properties of Factitious Airs, with
an Appendix on the nature of Blood,
”
, a celebrated philosopher of the Epicurean sect, flourished in the second century under
, a celebrated philosopher of the Epicurean
sect, flourished in the second century under Adrian and
Antoninus Pius, and is the person to whom Lucian has
dedicated his “Pseudamantis.
” He wrote a bitter invective against the Christian religion, under the title of
“The true Word,
” which was answered by Origen with
great ability in a work consisting of eight books. His “True
Word
” is lost; but his objections against Christianity may
be known from the extracts which are preserved of it in
Origen’s answer. It is agreed on all hands, that he was a
most subtle adversary, perfectly versed in all the arts of
controversy, and as learned as he was ingenious: so that
it is no wonder if the primitive Christians thought nothing
less than such a champion as Origen a match for him.
Although he sometimes recurs to Platonic and Stoic modes
of reasoning, he is expressly ranked by Lucian, as well as
Origen, among the Epicureans; and this supposition best
accounts for the violence with which he opposed the Christian religion; for an Epicurean would of course reject,
without examination, all pretensions to divine communications or powers. Yet his hostility, or the great pains he
took to display it, affords some strong testimonies in favour
of the Christian religion, as may be seen in Lardner, and
other writers.
ly of Milan, but originally of Rome, bore arms in the sixteenth century, in which he was as much the philosopher as the soldier. He took advantage of the leisure afforded him
, of an illustrious family of Milan, but originally of Rome, bore arms in the sixteenth century, in which he was as much the philosopher as the soldier. He took advantage of the leisure afforded him by the peace, to reduce to order the military and historical memoirs he had collected during the tumult of war. They are very much esteemed in Italy, not less for, their excellence than their rarity. They appeared at Venice in 1565 and 1569, in 2 vols. 4to, commonly bound in one. The former, in six books, treats of the wars of Transilvania, and the other of those of his time in eight books. He wrote also some poems, and treatises on the military art, in Italian and Latin.
inting, if we may trust the enthusiasm of the Spanish authors in his behalf; he was at the same time philosopher, antiquary, sculptor, architect; an adept in the Hebrew, Greek,
, a painter of Cordova, acquired fame in the sixteenth century, both in Spain and Italy. His manner approaches somewhat to that of Correggio; the same exactness in the drawing, the same force in the expression, the same vigour in the colouring. It is impossible to contemplate without emotion his picture of the Last Supper in the cathedral of Cordova; where each of the apostles presents a different character of respect and affection for their master; the Christ displays at once an air of majesty and kindness; and the Judas a false and malignant countenance. The talents of Cespedes were not confined to painting, if we may trust the enthusiasm of the Spanish authors in his behalf; he was at the same time philosopher, antiquary, sculptor, architect; an adept in the Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Italian languages, a great poet, and a prolific author. He died in 1608, aged upwards of seventy.
was a Platonic philosopher, concerning whose history ecclesiastical writers are much divided;
was a Platonic philosopher, concerning whose history ecclesiastical writers are much divided; Cave, Hody, Beausobre, and Lardner, have examined all the evidence they could find without coming to a conclusion, nor does it appear from his writings whether he was a Christian or a Gentile. It is supposed that he flourished about the year 330. He translated into Latin the former part of the Timæus of Plato, with a commentary, which afforded great scope for the speculations of the philosophers of the middle ages. This was printed in Gr. & Lat. by Meursius at Leyden, 1617, 4to, and reprinted by Fabricius in the second volume of his edition of the works of Hyppolitus, Hamburgh, 1718, fol.
es in Paris, epitomized, with t[ie lives of the late members of that society,“8vo. 5.” The Religious Philosopher; or, the right use of contemplating the works of the Creator,
, son to the preceding, was
admitted into Trinity college, Oxford, 1685; but it does
not appear that he took any degree. He continued his
father’s “Angliae Notitia,
” or “Present State,
” as long
as he lived, and it was continued after his death until 1755,
which, we believe, is the last edition. He translated, 1.
from French and Spanish, “The manner of making Tea,
Coffee, and Chocolate, London,
” A Treasure of Health,
” London,
The Arguments of the books
and chapters of the Old and New Testament, with practical observations written originally in French, by the rev.
Mr. Ostervald, professor of divinity, and one of the ministers of the church at Neufchatel in Swisserland, and by
him presented to the society for promoting Christian
knowledge,
” Lond. The Lives of
the French Philosophers, translated from the French of M.
de Fontenelle, republished since in 1721, under the title
of
” Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris,
epitomized, with t[ie lives of the late members of that society,“8vo. 5.
” The Religious Philosopher; or, the
right use of contemplating the works of the Creator, &c.
translated from the original Dutch of Dr. Nieuwentyt,“Lond. 1713, &c. 3 vols. 8vo, reprinted several times since
in 8vo, and once in 4to. 6.
” The History of the Reformation in and about the Low Countries, translated from the
Dutch of Gerrard Brandt,“Lond. 1721, &c. 4 vols. fol.
7.
” The Lord’s Prayer in Dissertations historical, critical, theological, and moral, on the most memorable events of the
Old and New Testaments; wherein the spirit of the sacred
writings is shewn, their authority confirmed, and the sentiments of the primitive fathers, as well as the modern,
critics, with regard to the difficult passages therein, considered and compared; vol. I. comprising the events related
in the Books of Moses to which are added, chronological
tables, fixing the date of each event, and connecting the
several dissertations together,
” one Chamberlayne, secretary to the
reformers, and to the committee for propagating religion
in the Indies.
” There are some of tylr. Chamberlayne’s
letters in bishop Nicolson’s “Epistolary Correspondence
”
lately published. The bishop wrote a preface to Mr. Chamberlayne’s “Lord’s Prayer in 100 Languages.
”
ical plan. In this work he wrote a variety of articles, and particularly a review of Morgan’s “Moral Philosopher.” He was engaged likewise, in conjunction with Mr. John Marty
Although the “Cyclopædia
” was the grand business of
Mr. Chambers’s life, and may be regarded as almost the
sole foundation of his fame, his attention was not wholly
confined to this undertaking. He was concerned in a
periodical publication entitled “The Literary Magazine,
”
which was begun in Moral Philosopher.
” He was engaged likewise, in conjunction with Mr. John Marty n,
F. R. S. and professor of botany at Cambridge, in preparing for the press a translation and abridgment of the
“Philosophical history and memoirs of the royal academy
of sciences at Paris or an abridgment of all the papers
relating to natural philosophy which have been published
by the members of that illustrious society.
” This undertaking, when completed, was comprised in five volumes,
8vo, which did not appear till 1742, some time after our
author’s decease, when they were published in the joint
names of Mr. Martyn and Mr. Chambers. Mr. Marty n, in
a subsequent publication, passed a severe censure upon the
share which his fellow-labourer had in the abridgment of
the Parisian papers; which, indeed, he appears to have
executed in a very slovenly manner, and to have been unacquainted with the French terms in natural history. The
only work besides, that we find ascribed to Mr. Chambers,
is a translation of the “Jesuit’s Perspective,
” from the
French; which was printed in 4to, and has gone through
several editions. How indefatigable he was in his literary
and scientific collections, is manifest from a circumstance
which used to be related by Mr. Airey, who was so well
known to many persons by the vivacity of his temper and
conversation, and his bold avowal of the principles of infidelity. This gentleman, in the very early part of his life,
was five years (from 1728 to 1733) amanuensis to Mr. Chambers; and, during that time, copied nearly 20 folio volumes, so large as to comprehend materials, if they had
been published, for printing 30 volumes in the same size.
Mr. Chambers however acknowledged, that if they were
printed, they would neither be sold nor read. His close
and unremitting attention to his studies at length impaired
his health, and obliged him occasionally to take a lodging
at Canonbury-house, Islington. This not having greatly
contributed to his recovery, he made an excursion to the
south of France, of which he left an account in ms. but
did not reap that benefit from the journey which he had
himself hoped and his friends wished. Returning to England in the autumn of 1739, he died at Canonbury-house,
and was buried at Westminster; where the following inscription, written by himself, is placed on the north side of
the cloisters of the abbey:
tion,“1736, 8vo. 7.” A Vindication of the History of the Old Testament,“in answer to Morgan’s” Moral Philosopher,“1741, 8vo. 8.” A Defence of the Prime Ministry and Character
Dr. Chandler’s other works were: 1. “Reflections on
the Conduct of the Modern Deists, in their late writings
against Christianity,
” A Vindication of the
Antiquity and Authority of Daniel’s Prophecies,
” History of the Inquisition,
” A large
introduction, concerning the rise and progress of persecution, and the real and pretended causes of it.
” This
was attacked by Dr. Berriman, in a pamphlet entitled
“Brief Remarks on Mr. Chandler’s Introduction to the
History of the Inquisition.
” Our author published, in the
form of a letter, an answer to these “Remarks,
” which
engaged Dr. Berriman to write “A Review of his Remarks,
” to which Mr. Chandler replied in “A second
Letter to William Berriman, D. D. &c. in which his Review of his Hemarks on the Introduction to the History of
the Inquisition is considered, and the Characters of St.
Athanasius, and Martyr Laud, are farther stated and supported.
” This publication was soon followed by another,
entitled “A Vindication of a passage of the Right Reverend the Lord Bishop of London, in his second Pastoral
Letter, against the misrepresentations of William Berriman, D. D. in a Letter to his Lordship;
” and here the
controversy ended. 4. “The Dispute better adjusted
about the proper time of applying for a repeal of the Corporation and Test Acts,
” &c.“1732, 8vo. 5.
” A Paraphrase and critical Commentary on the prophecy of Joel,“1735, 4to. This was part of a commentary on the whole
of the prophets, which he did not live to finish. 6.
” The
History of Persecution,“1736, 8vo. 7.
” A Vindication
of the History of the Old Testament,“in answer to Morgan’s
” Moral Philosopher,“1741, 8vo. 8.
” A Defence
of the Prime Ministry and Character of Joseph,“1742, 8vo.
9.
” The Witnesses of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ
re-examined, and their Testimony proved consistent,“1744, 8vo. 10.
” The Case of Subscription to explanatory articles of faith, &c. calmly considered,“1748, 8vo.
11.
” A Letter to the rev. Mr. John Guyse, occasioned by
his two sermojis on Acts ix. 20. in which the scripture notion of preaching Christ is stated and defended, and Mr.
Guyse’s charges against his brethren are considered and
proved groundless,“1729, 8vo. 12.
” A second Letter
to the rev. Mr. John Guyse, in which Mr. Guyse’s latitude
and restrictive ways of preaching Christ are proved to be
entirely the same; the notion of preaching Christ is farther cleared and defended; the charge alledged against
'him of defaming his brethren is maintained and supported;
and his solemn arts in controversy are considered and exposed,“1730, 8vo. 13.
” A Letter to the right hon. the
Lord Mayor; occasioned by his lordship’s nomination of
five persons, disqualified by act of parliament, as fit and
proper persons to serve the office^ of Sheriffs, in which the
nature and design of the corporation act is impartially considered and stated,“1738, 8vo. 14.
” An Account of
the Conferences held in Nicholas-lane, Feb. 13, 1734,
between two Romish priests and some protestant divines;
with some remarks on a pamphlet entitled The Conferences, c. truly stated/ 7 1735, 8vo. 15. “Cassiodori
Senatoris Complexiones in Epistolas, Acta Apostolorum,
& Apocalypsin, e vetustissimis Canonicorum Veronensium
membranis nuper erutee. Editio altera ad Florentinam
fideliter expressa, opera & cura Samuelis Chandleri,
”
A short and plain Catechism, being
an explanation of the Creed, Ten Commandments, and
the Lord’s Prayer, by way of question and answer,
” Great Britain’s Memorial against the Pretender and Popery; to which is annexed, the method of
dragooning the French protestants after the revocation of
the edict of Nantes,
” Many occasional sermons.
”
Dr. Chandler also wrote about fifty papers in the weekly
publication called “The Old Whig, or Consistent Protestant.
” In A Paraphrase and Notes
on the Epistles of St. Paul to the Galatians and Ephesians,
with doctrinal and practical Observations; together with
a critical and practical Commentary on the two Epistles of
St. Paul to the Thessalonians.
” In this there are some
valuable criticisms, but all are not entitled to that praise.
Dr. Chandler also left in his interleaved Bible, a large
number of critical notes, chiefly in Latin, and which were
intended to be published; but the design has not yet been
executed, and the four gentlemen to whom they were intrusted, Dr. Kippis, Mr. Farmer, Dr. Price, and Dr. Savage, are all dead, nor have we heard in what manner they
disposed of the copy.
turn for drawing and the mathematics. Descartes was scarcely eight years of age when he was styled a philosopher, and Chappe at that age might have been called a mathematician.
, an eminent French astronomer, was born at Mauriac, a town in Upper Auvergne, on the 23d of May, 1728, of John Chappe, lord of the barony of Auteroche, and Magdalen de la Farge, daughter of Peter de la Farge, lord of larPierre. From his birth he enjoyed the valuable advantage of not being under the necessity of struggling, like many men of genius, with adversity and penury. The distinguished rank which his parents held in their province, added to their wealth and opulence, enabled them to bestow upon their son an excellent education, the foundation of which was laid at Mauriac, where he began his studies. Having made considerable progress here, he went afterwards to finish them at the college de Louis le Grand. M. Chappe, from his earliest infancy, shewed a surprising turn for drawing and the mathematics. Descartes was scarcely eight years of age when he was styled a philosopher, and Chappe at that age might have been called a mathematician. An irresistible impulse, and singular disposition, as if innate, led him to draw plans and make calculations; but these pursuits, quite forojgn to the studies in which he was then engaged, occupied no part of that time which was allotted for them. He applied to the former only at those moments which the regulations. of the college suffered him to call his own.
rinted and adorned with engravings. Besides the account of the particular object of his journey, the philosopher finds in it the history of mankind and of nature; and the statesman
The abbe set out for the place of his destination in the month of November 1760. After encountering a variety of almost incredible difficulties, he arrived at Tobolsk, where ignorance and superstition prepared new danger for him. The simple Russians, attentive to all his actions, beheld his preparations with the utmost terror; the observatory which he caused to be erected, and the instruments he transported thither, increased their alarm; and the overflowing of the river Irtish, which inundated part of the city, a natural consequence of the thaw that took place, served still more to confirm them in their suspicions. The governor of Tobolsk, a man of education, to whom the world is indebted for a correct chart of the Caspian, was obliged to give the abb a guard for his protection. The moment so long wished for, and purchased by such fatigue and peril, being at length arrived, the abbe", on the 5th of June, made every necessary preparation for observing the transit; but the pleasure which he anticipated from the success of his expedition was not free from a mixture of pain, for the sky, during the night, became quite overcast. This was a new source of uneasiness to the abbe; but luckily for science, a favourable wind, which sprung up at sun-rise, revived his hopes, by withdrawing the veil that obscured the object of his researches. The observation was made with the necessary precision, in presence of M. Ismailof, count Poushkin, and the archbishop of Tobolsk: and the academy of sciences at Paris, as well as that of Petersburg, received the particulars of this event soon after by a courier whom M. Ismailof immediately dispatched. The glory of this observation had preceded the abbé, and prepared new honours for him at St. Petersburg. The empress, with a view of inducing him to settle there, made him an offer, by means of baron de Breteuil, of the distinguished place which had been occupied by M. Delisle. But choosing rather to pass his days at home, he rejected the offers made him. On his arrival in France hebegan, to prepare an account of his journey, which was published in 1768, in 3 vols. 4to, elegantly printed and adorned with engravings. Besides the account of the particular object of his journey, the philosopher finds in it the history of mankind and of nature; and the statesman the political system and interest of nations. The great labour required to prepare this work for publication did not interrupt the abba’s astronomical pursuits. He enriched the memoirs of the academy with several instructive pieces; and that which he presented in 1767 is the more valuable, as it confirms the experiments made upon electricity at Tobolsk, and demonstrates the identity of the electric fluid with lightning.
st capable of being explained in such a manner as that they might become so in the hands of a modern philosopher. This work was translated into several modern languages. 26.
, a very learned physician,
and voluminous writer, the son of the rev. Walter Charleton, M. A. some time vicar of Ilminster, and afterwards
rector of Shepton Mallet, in the county of Somerset,
was born at Shepton Mallet, February 2, 1619, and was
first educated by his father, a man of extensive capacity,
though but indifferently furnished with the goods of fortune. He was afterwards sent to Oxford, and entered of
Magdalen Hall in Lent term 1635, where he became the
pupil of the famous Dr. John Wilkins, afterwards bishop
of Chester, under whom he made great progress in logic
and philosophy, and was noted for assiduous application
and extensive capacity, which encouraged him to aim at
the accomplishments of an universal scholar. But as his
circumstances confined him to some particular profession,
he made choice of physic, and in a short time made as
great a progress in that as he had done in his former studies.
On the breaking out of the civil war, which brought the
king to Oxford, Mr. Charleton, by the favour of the king,
had the degree of doctor of physic conferred upon him in
February 1642, and was soon after made one of the physicians in ordinary to his majesty. These honours made
him be considered as a rising character, and exposed him
to that envy and resentment which he could never entirely
conquer. Upon the declension of the royal cause, he came
up to London, was admitted of the college of physicians,
acquired considerable practice, and lived in much esteem
with the ablest and most learned men of the profession;
such as sir Francis Prujean, sir George Ent, Dr. William
Harvey, and others. In the space of ten years before the
Restoration, he wrote and published several very ingenious
and learned treatises, as well on physical as other subjects,
by which he gained great reputation abroad as well as at
home; and though they are now less regarded than perhaps they deserve, yet they were then received with almost universal approbation. He became, as Wood tells
us, physician in ordinary to king Charles II. while in exile,
which honour he retained after the king’s return; and,
upon the founding of the royal society, was chosen one of
the first members. Among other patrons and friends were
William Cavendish, duke of Newcastle, whose life Dr.
Cliarleton translated into Latin in a very clear and elegant
style, and the celebrated Hobbes, but this intimacy, with:
his avowed respect for the Epicurean philosophy, drew
some suspicions upon him in regard to his religion, notwithstanding the pains he had taken to distinguish between
the religious and philosophical opinions of Epicurus in his
own writings against infidelity. Few circumstances seem
to have drawn more censure on him than his venturing to
differ in opinion from the celebrated Inigo Jones respecting
Stonehenge, which Jones attributed to the Romans, and
asserted to be a temple dedicated by them to the god Coelus, or Coelum; Dr. Charleton referred this antiquity to
later and more barbarous times, and transmitted Jones’s
book, which was not published till after its author’s death,
to Olaus Wormius, who wrote him several letters, tending
to fortify him in his own sentiment, by proving that this
work ought rather to be attributed to his countrymen the
Danes. With this assistance Dr. Charleton drew up a
treatise, offering many strong arguments to shew, that this
could not be a Roman temple, and several plausible reasons why it ought rather to be considered as a Danish monument; but his book, though learned, and enriched with
a great variety of curious observations, was but indifferently
received, and but coldly defended by his friends. Jones’s
son-in-law answered it with intemperate warmth, and many
liberties were taken by others with Dr. Charleton’s character, although sir William Dugdale and some other eminent antiquaries owned themselves to be of our author’s
opinion; but it is now supposed that both are wrong.
Notwithstanding this clamour, Dr. Charleton’s fame was
advanced by his anatomical prelections in the college
theatre, in the spring of 1683, and his satisfactory defence
of the immortal Harvey’s claim to the discovery of the
circulation of the blood, against the pretence that was set
up in favour of father Paul. In 1689 he was chosen president of the college of physicians, in which office he continued to the year 1691. A little after this, his circumstances becoming narrow, he found it necessary to seek a
retreat in the island of Jersey; but the causes of this are not
explained, nor have we been able to discover how long he
continued in Jersey, or whether he returned afterwards to
London. All that is known with certainty is, that he died
in the latter end of 1707, and in the eighty-eighth year
of his age. He appears from his writings to have been a
man of extensive learning, a lover of the constitution in
church and state, and so much a lover of his country as to
refuse a professor’s chair in the university of Padua. In
his junior years he dedicated much of his time to the study
of philosophy and polite literature, was as well read in
the Greek and Roman authors as any man of his time, and
he was taught very early by his excellent tutor, bishop
Wilkins, to digest his knowledge so as to command it readily
when occasion required. In every branch of his own
profession he has left testimonies of his diligence and his
capacity; and whoever considers the plainness and perspicuity of his language, the pains he has taken to collect
and produce the opinions of the old physicians, in order
to compare them with the moderns, the just remarks with
which these collections and comparisons are attended, the
succinctness with which all this is dispatched, and the
great accuracy of that method in which his books are
written, will readily agree that he was equal to most of his
contemporaries. As an antiquary, he had taken much pains
in perusing our ancient historians, and in observing their
excellencies as well as their defects. But, above all, he
was studious of connecting the sciences with each other,
and thereby rendering them severally more perfect; in
which, if he did not absolutely succeed himself, he had at
least the satisfaction of opening the way to others, of showing the true road to perfection, and pointing out the
means of applying and making those discoveries useful,
which have followed in succeeding times. There is also
good reason to believe, that though we have few or none
of his writings extant that were composed during the last
twenty years of his life, yet he was not idle during that
space, but committed many things to paper, as materials
at least for other works that he designed. There is now a
large collection of his ms papers and letters on subjects of
philosophy and natural history in the British Museum.
(Ayscough’s Catalogue.) His printed works are, 1 . “Spiritus
Gorgonicus vi sua saxipara exutus, sive de causis, signis,
et sanatione Lithiaseos,
” Leyden, The darkness
of Atheism discovered by the light of nature, a physicotheological treatise,
” London, The Ephesian and Cimmerian Matrons, two remarkable examples of
the power of Love and Wit/ 7 London, 1653 and 1658, 8vo.
4.
” Physiologia Epicuro-Gassendo-Charletoniana: or a
fabric of natural science erected upon the most ancient
hypothesis of atoms,“London, 1654, in fol. 5.
” The Immortality of the human Soul demonstrated by reasons natural,“London, 1657, 4to. 6.
” Oeconomia Animalis novis Anatomicorum inventis, indeque desumptis modernorum Medicorum Hypothesibus Physicis superstructa et
mechanice explicata,“London, 1658, 12mo; Amsterdam,
1659, 12mo; Leyden, 1678, 12mO; Hague, 1681, 12mo.
It is likewise added to the last edition of
” Gulielmi Cole
de secretione animali cogitata.“7.
” Natural history of
nutrition, life, and voluntary motion, containing all the
new discoveries of anatomists,“&c. London, 1658, 4to.
8.
” Exercitationes Physico-Anatomicse de Oeconomia Animali,“London, 1659, 8vo printed afterwards several
times abroad. 9.
” Exercitationes Pathologicæ, in quibus
morborum pene omnium natura, generatio, et causae ex
novis Anatomicorum inventis sedulo inquiruntur,“London,
160, and 1661, 4to. 10.
” Character of his most sacred
Majesty Charles II. King of Great Britain, France, and
Ireland,“London, 1660, one sheet, 4to. 11.
” Disquisitiones duae Anatomico-Physica? altera Anatome pueri de
ccelo tacti, altera de Proprietatibus Cerebri humani,“London, 1664, 8vo. 12.
” Chorea Gigantum, or the most
famous antiquity of Great Britain, vulgarly called Stonehenge, standing on Salisbury Plain, restored to the Danes,“London, 1663, 4to. 13.
” Onomasticon Zoicon, plerorumque animalium differentias et nomina propria pluribus
linguis exponens. Cui accedunt Mantissa Anatomice, et
quiedam de variis Fossilium generibus,“London, 1668 and
1671, 4to; Oxon. 1677, fol. 14.
” Two Philosophical
Discourses the first concerning the different wits of men
the second concerning the mystery of Vintners, or a discourse of the various sicknesses of wines, and their respective remedies at this day commonly used, &c. London, 1663, 1675, 1692, 8vo. 15. “De Scorbuto Liber
singularis. Cui accessit Epiphonema in Medicastros,
”
London, Natural
History of the Passions,
” London, Enquiries into Humane Nature, in six Anatomy-prelections in
the new theatre of the royal college of physicians in London,
” London, Oratio Anniversaria habita in Theatro inclyti Collegii Medicorum Londinensis 5to
Augusti 1680, in commemorationem Beneficiorum a
Doctore Harvey aliisque præstitorum,
” London, 1680, 4to.
19. “The harmony of natural and positive Divine Laws,
”
London, Three Anatomic Lectures concerning, l.The motion of the blood through the veins and
arteries. 2. The organic structure of the heart. 3. The
efficient cause of the heart’s pulsation. Read in the 19th,
20th, and 21st day of March 1682, in the anatomic theatre
of his majesty’s royal college of Physicians in London,
”
London, Inquisitio Physlca de causis
Catameniorum, et Uteri Rheumatismo, in quo probatur
sanguinem in animali fermentescere nunquam,
” London,
Gulielmi Ducis Novicastrensis vita,
”
London, A Ternary of Paradoxes, of the
magnetic cure of wounds, nativity of tartar in wine, and
image of God in man,
” London, The
errors of physicians concerning Defluxions called Deliramenta Catarrhi,
” London, Epicurus his Morals,
” London, The Life
of Marcellus,
” translated from Plutarch, and printed in the
second volume of “Plutarch’s Lives translated from the
Greek by several hands,
” London,
good life, was charitably disposed, a person of wisdom and conduct, serious and considerate; a great philosopher, an eloquent orator, a famous and powerful preacher, richly
, was born at Paris in 1541. Though
his parents were in narrow circumstances, yet discovering
their son’s capacity, they were particularly attentive to his
education. After making a considerable proficiency in
grammar-learning, he applied to logic, metaphysics, moral
and natural philosophy, and afterwards studied civil and
common law at the universities of Orleans and Bourges,
and commenced doctor in that faculty. Upon his return
to Paris, he was admitted an advocate in the court of parliament. He always declared the bar to be the best and
most improving school in the world; and accordingly attended at all the public hearings for five or six years: but
foreseeing that preferment in this way, if ever attained at
all, was like to come very slow, as he had neither private
interest, nor relations among the solicitors and proctors of
the court, he gave over that employment, and closely applied to the study of divinity. By his superior pulpit
eloquence, he soon came into high reputation with the
greatest and most learned men of his time, insomuch that
the bishops seemed to strive which of them should get him
into his diocese; making him an offer of being theological
canon or divinity lecturer in their churches, and of other
dignities and benefices, besides giving him noble presents.
He was successively theologal of Bazas, Aqcs, Lethoure,
Agen, Cahors, and Condom, canon and schoolmaster in
the church of Bourdeaux, and chanter in the church of
Condom. Queen Margaret, duchess of Bulois, entertained him for her preacher in ordinary; and the king,
though at that time a protestant, frequently did him the
honour to be one of his audience. He was also retained
by the cardinal d'Armagnac, the pope’s legate at Avignon,
who had a great value for him; yet amidst all these promotions, he never took any degree or title in divinity, but
satisfied himself with deserving and being capable of the
highest. After about eighteen years absence from Paris,
he resolved to end his days there; and being a lover of
retirement, vowed to become a Carthusian. On his arrival
at Paris, he communicated his intention to the prior of the
order, but was rejected, notwithstanding his most pressing
entreaties. They told him that he could not be received
on account of his age, then about forty-eight, and that the
order required all the vigour of youth to support its austerities. He next addressed himself to the Celestines at
Paris, but with the same success, and for the same reasons:
in this embarrassment, he was assured by three learned
casuists, that as he was no ways accessary to the non -performance of his vow, it was no longer binding; and that
he might, with a very safe conscience, continue in the
world as a secular. He preached, however, a course of
Lent sermons at Angers in 1589. Going afterwards to
Bourdeaux, he contracted a very intimate friendship with
Michael de Montagne, author of the well known Essays,
from whom he received all possible testimonies of regard;
for, among other things, Montagne ordered by his last
will, that in case he should leave no issue-male of his own,
M. Charron should, after his decease, be entitled to bear
the coat of arms plain, as they belonged to his noble
family, and Charron, in return, made Montagne’s brotherin-law his residuary legatee. He staid at Bourdeaux from
1589 to 1593; and in that interval composed his book,
entitled, “Les Trois Verge’s,
” which he published in
books of Wisdom.
” Whilst he was thus
employed, the bishop of Condom, to draw him into his
diocese, presented him with the chaptership in his church;
and the theologal chair falling vacant about the same time,
made him an offer of that too, which -Charron accepted,
and resolved to settle there. In 1601 he printed at Bourdeaux his books “of Wisdom,
” which gave him a great
reputation, and made his character generally known.
October 1603, he made a journey to Paris, to thank the
Bishop of Boulogne; who, in order to have him near himself, had oifered him the place of theologal canon. This
he was disposed to accept of; but the moisture and coldness of the air at Boulogne, and its nearness to the sea,
not only made it, he said to a friend, a melancholy and
unpleasant place, but very unwholesome too; adding, that
the sun was his visible god, as God was his invisible sun.
At Paris he began a new edition of his books “of Wisdom,
”
of which he lived to see but three or four sheets printed,
dying Nov. 16, 1603, of an apoplexy. The impression of
the new edition of his book “of Wisdom,
” with alterations
by the author, occasioned by the offence taken at some
passages in the former, was completed in 1604, by the
care of a friend; but as the Bourdeaux edition contained
some things that were either suppressed or softened in the
subsequent one, it was much sought after by the curious.
Hence the booksellers of several cities reprinted the book
after that edition; and this induced a Paris bookseller to
print an edition, to which he subjoined all the passages of
the first edition which had been struck out or corrected,
and all those which the president Jeannin, who was employed by the chancellor to examine the book, judged
necessary to be changed. This edition appeared in 1707.
There have been two translations of it into English, the
last by George Stanhope, D. D. printed in 1697. Dr.
Stanhope says, that M. Charron “was a person that feared
God, led a pious and good life, was charitably disposed,
a person of wisdom and conduct, serious and considerate;
a great philosopher, an eloquent orator, a famous and
powerful preacher, richly furnished and adorned with the
most excellent virtues and graces both moral and divine;
such as made him very remarkable and singular, and deservedly gave him the character of a good man and a good
Christian; such as preserve a great honour and esteem for
his memory among persons of worth and virtue, and will
continue to do so as long as the world shall last.
” From
this high praise considerable deductions may surely be
made. Charron’s fame has scarcely outlived his century;
his book on “Wisdom
” certainly abounds in ingenious
and original observations on moral topics, but gives a
gloomy picture of human nature and society. Neither is
it free from sentiments very hostile to revealed religion,
but so artfully disguised as to impose on so orthodox a divine as dean Stanhope.
ed him neither in his good nor his bad qualities, and that he does not interest his readers like the philosopher of Rotterdam, his style being inferior and incorrect. They allow,
A selection of Chaufepie’s “Sermons
” was published
after his death by his nephew and colleague in the church
at Amsterdam, Samuel de Chaufepié. But the work which
gives him the best title to a place here, is his “Nouveau
Dictionaire Historique et Critique pour servir de Supplement, ou de Continuation au Dictionaire de M. Pierre
Bayle,
” Amsterdam, General Dictionary,
”
10 vols. fol. The new articles from the pen of Chaufepié
are in general accurate, and this work ought to be better
known in this country, because, owing to the author’s religious principles, less use has been made of it abroad than
it deserves. The English articles, although this circumstance is not perhaps of much importance here, are
more full than in any other work published on the
Continent, and the additions the author has made not only to
them, but to Bayle’s series, afford a very favourable idea of
the labour and research he must have employed. He appears to have been first applied to by the booksellers of
Amsterdam in 1739, and to have spent several years in
preparing it for the press. With respect to the charge that
it is less interesting to readers than Bayle, we can only remark that in proportion as any biographer follows Bayle,
he will render his work a tissue of interrupting impertinencies and crude sentiments.
j where he studied philosophy, in the college of Boncours, under Julius Caesar Boulanger, an eminent philosopher, and one of the best historians of that period.
, an eminent historian, and justly considered as the father of French history, was bornin the Isle of Bouchard; in Torrairie, May 1584. He was the youngest of the four sons of Tanneguy Du Chesne, lord of Sausoniere. His name has been Latinized in different forms. He has at different times called himself Quema3us, Quercetanus, Duchenius; and by others he has been called Querceus, a Quercu, Chesneus, and Chesnius. In his historical works he assumed no other title than that of geographer to the king, except in his history of the house of Bethune, printed in 1639, where he calls himself historiographer to the king. His family produced many men of talents in the army and at the bar. He was first educated at Loudun, and after a course of grammar and rhetoric, came to Parisj where he studied philosophy, in the college of Boncours, under Julius Caesar Boulanger, an eminent philosopher, and one of the best historians of that period.
, in Latin Claramontius, an eminent Italian astronomer and philosopher, was born at Cesena in the province of Romagna in June 1565.
, in Latin Claramontius,
an eminent Italian astronomer and philosopher, was born
at Cesena in the province of Romagna in June 1565. His
father was a physician at Cesena. He studied at Perugia
and Ferrara, and became distinguished for his progress in
philosophy and mathematics;, the former of which he
taught for some time at Pisa. He passed, however, the
greater part of his long life at Cesena, and in his history
of that place, which he published in 1641, he informs us,
that for fifty -nine years he had served his country in a public capacity. He was, in particular, frequently deputed to
Rome, either to offer obedience to the pope in the name
of his countrymen, or on other affairs. He had married a
Jady whom he calls Virginia de Abbatibus, but becoming
a widower at the age of eighty, he went into the church,
received priest’s orders, and retired with the priests of the
congregation of the oratory, for whom he built a church at
Cesena, and there he died Oct. 3, 1652, in his eightyseventh year. He established at Cesena the academy of
the Oifuscati, over which he presided until his death. His
works, written partly in Italian and partly in Latin, are
very numerous, and filled a considerable space in the literary history of his time: 1. “Discorso della Cometa pogonare dell' anno 1618, &c.
” Venice, Anti-Tycho, in quo contra Tychonem Brahe,
et nonnullos alios, &.c. demonstrator Cometas esse sublunares,
” Venice, De conjectandis cuj usque moribus et
latitantibus animi affectibus semeiotice moralis, seu de signis libri decem,
” ibid. Notse in moralem suam
semeioticam, seu de signis,
” Cesena, Apologia pro Anti-Tychone suo adversus Hypcraspiten Joannis Kepleri,
” Venice, De tribus novis stellis, quse annis 1572, 1600, et 1604, comparuere,
” Cesena, Difesa di Scipioni
Chiaramonti, &c.
” Florence, Delia ‘ragione di stato libri tre, nel quale trattato da primi priticipii dedotto si suo prona la natura, le massime, e le specie
cle’ governi buoni, cattivi e mascherati,
” Florence, Examen ad censuram Joannis Camilli Gloriosi in hbrum
de tribus novis stellis,
” ibid. De sede
sublunari Cometarum, opuscula tria,
” Amst. 1636, 4to. If.
“Castigatio J. Camilli Gloriosi adversus Claramontium
castigata ab ipso Claramontio,
” Cesena, De methodo ad doctrinam spectante, libri quatuor, &c.
”
ibid. Csesense Historia libris sexdecim,
ab initio civitatis ad haec tempera,
” with a sketch of the
general history of Italy during the same period, Cesena,
1641, 4to. 14. “De atrabile, quoad mores attinet,
” Paris, Anti-Philolaus, in quo Philolaus redivivus de
terrse motu et solis ac fixarum quiete impugnalur,
” &c.
Cesena, Defensio ab oppugnationibus Fortunii Liceti de sede Cometarum,
” Cesena, De Universo, libri
sexdecim,
” Cologne, De altitudine Caucasi liber unus, cura Gab. Naudasi editus,
” Paris, Philosophia naturalis methodo resolutiva tradita, &c.
” Cesena,
Opuscula varia mathematica,
” Bologna,
Commentaria in Aristotelem de iri.de,
&c.
” ibid. In quatuor meteorum Aristotelis librum commentaria,
” Venice, Delle,
scene, e theatri opera posthuma,
” Cesena,
, a divine and natural philosopher, was born in 1623, and educated at Rochester, whence he removed
, a divine and natural philosopher, was born in 1623, and educated at Rochester,
whence he removed to Magdalen-college, Oxford, in
1640. and became one of the clerks of the house, but appears to have left the university on the breaking out of
the rebellion. When Oxford was surrendered to the
parliamentary forces, he returned and took his bachelor’s
degree, but two years after was expelled by the parliamentary visitors. He then subsisted by teaching school
at Feversham, in Kent, although not without interruption
from the republican party; but on the restoration, he was
made chaplain to Henry lord Herbert, was created D. D.
and had the rectory of Upway, in Dorsetshire, bestowed
upon him. Jn Jan. 1663, he was collated to the archdeaconry of Salisbury, and in June 1664 to the prebend
of Yatminster prima in the same church, by bishop Earle,
who valued him as a learned and pious divine, and a great
virtuoso. He died at Upway, Aug. 26, 1670, and was
buried in the chancel of his church. He published, 1. a
pamphlet entitled “Indago Astrologica,
” Syzygiasticon instauratum, or an Ephemerisof the places
and aspects of the Planets, &c.
” Lond. Britannia Baconica, or the natural rarities,
of England, Scotland, and Wales, historically related, ac$ording to the precepts of lord Bacon,
” &c.“Lond. 1661,
8vo. It was this work which first suggested to Dr. Plot his
” Natural History of Oxfordshire."
For his character Wood has given the following: “He was a most noted philosopher and orator, and, without doubt, a poet also; and had such an
For his character Wood has given the following: “He
was a most noted philosopher and orator, and, without
doubt, a poet also; and had such an admirable faculty in
reclaiming schismatics and confuting papists, that none in
his time went beyond him. He had also very great skill
in mathematics. He was a subtle and quick disputant, and
would several times put the king’s professor to a push.
Hobbes of Malmesbury would often say, that he was like
a lusty fighting fellow, that did drive his enemies before
him, but would often give his own party smart back-blows;
and it was the current opinion of the university, that he
and Lucius lord Falkland,” who by the way was his most
intimate friend, “had such extraordinary clear reason,
that, if the great Turk or devil were to be converted, they
were able to do it. He was a man of little stature, but of
great soul: which, if times had been serene, and life
spared, might have done incomparable services to the church
of England.” Archbishop Tillotson has spoken of him in
the highest terms: “I know not how it comes to pass,
”
says that eminent prelate, “but so it is, that every one
that offers to give a reasonable account of his faith, and to
establish religion upon rational principles, is presently
branded for a Socinian; of which we have a sad instance
in that incomparable person Mr. Chillingworth, the glory
of this age and nation: who, for no other cause that I
know of, but his worthy and successful attempts to make the
Christian religion reasonable, and to discover those firm
and solid foundations upon which our faith is built, has
been requited with this black and odious character. But,
if this be Socinianism, for a man to inquire into the
grounds and reasons of Christian religion, and to endeavour to give a satisfactory account why he believes it, I
know no way, but that all considerate and inquisitive men,
that are above fancy and enthusiasm, must be either Socinians or atheists.
” Mr. Locke has also spoken of Chillingworth with equal commendation. In a small tract, containing “Some thoughts concerning reading and study for
a gentleman,
” after having observed that the art of speaking well consists chiefly in two things, namely, perspicuity
and right reasoning, and proposed Dr. Tillotson as a pat
tern for the attainment of the art of speaking clearly, he
adds: “Besides perspicuity, there masjt-be also right
reasoning, without which, perspicuity serves but to expose
the speaker. And for attaining of this, I should propose the
constant reading of Chillingworth, who, by his example,
will teach both perspicuity and the way of right reasoning,
better than any book that I know: and therefore will deserve to be read upon that account over and over again;
not to say any thing of his argument.
”
, a learned philosopher, and one of the most eminent magistrates of Geneva, was born
, a learned philosopher, and
one of the most eminent magistrates of Geneva, was born
there in 1642. He was the first who taught the philosophy
of Descartes at Saumur. In 1669, he was recalled to Geneva, and gave lectures there with great applause. Chouet
became afterwards counsellor and secretary of state at Geneva, and wrote a history of that republic. He died September 17, 1731, aged 89. His publications are, “An
Introduction to Logic,
” in Latin, Theses
Physicae de varia Astrorum luce,
” Memoire
succinct sur la Reformation,
” Reponses a des
Questions de Milord Townsend sur Geneve ancienne fakes,
en 1696, et publiees en 1774.
” Besides these, he left in
ms. in 3 vols. folio, a work, entitled “Diverses Recherches
sur l'Hist. cle Geneve, sur son Gouvernement et sa Constitution.
”
, a celebrated stoic philosopher, was born at Soli, a city of Cilicia, afterwards called Pompeiopolis,
, a celebrated stoic philosopher, was born
at Soli, a city of Cilicia, afterwards called Pompeiopolis,
and was not the disciple of Zeno, as some have said, but
of Cleanthes, Zeno’s successor. He had a very acute
genius, and wrote a great many books, above 700, as we
are told, several of which belonged to logic; for he applied himself with great care to cultivate that part of philosophy. Val. Maximus relates, that he began his 39th
book of logic when he was eighty years old: and Lucian,
who sought out absurdities in order to laugh at them, could
not forbear ridiculing the logical subtilties of this philosopher. The great number of books he composed will not
appear so surprising if it be considered that his manner
was to write several times upon the same subject; to set
down whatever came into his head; to take little pains in
correcting his works; to crowd them with an infinite number of quotations: add to all these circumstances, that he
was very laborious, and lived to a great age. Of his works
nothing remains except a few extracts in the works of
Cicero, Plutarch, Seneca, and Aulus Gellius. He had an
unusual portion of vanity, and often said to Cleanthes,
“Shew me hut the doctrines; that is sufficient for me, and
all I want I shall find the proofs of them myself.
” A
person asked him one day whom he should choose for a
tutor to his son? “Me,
” answered Chrysippus; “for, if
I knew any body more learned than myself, 1 would go and
study under him.
” There is another apophthegm of his
preserved, which does him much more honour than either
of these; and therefore we hope it is not spurious. Being
told that some persons spoke ill of him, “It is no matter,
”
said he, “I will live so, that they shall not be believed.
”
As a philosopher, he rather related the opinions of others than advanced any
As a philosopher, he rather related the opinions of others than advanced any new doctrines of his own conceptions. He attached himself chiefly to the Academic sect, but did not neglect to inform himself of the doctrines of other sects, and discovered much learning and ingenuity in refuting their dogmas. He was an admirer of the doctrine of the stoics concerning natural equity and civil law, and adopted their ideas concerning morals, although not with servility. The sect to which he was most averse was the Epicurean, but upon the whole, from the general cast of his writings, the Academic sect was best suited to his natural disposition. Through all his philosophical works, he paints in lively colours, and with all the graces of fine writing, the opinions of philosophers; and relates, in the diffuse manner of an orator, the arguments on each side of the question in dispute; but we seldom find him diligently examining the exact weight of evidence in the scale of reason, carefully deducing accurate conclusions from certain principles, or exhibiting a series of arguments in a close and systematic arrangement. On the contrary, we frequently hear him declaiming eloquently, instead of reasoning conclusively, and meet with unequivocal proofs, that he was better qualified to dispute on either side with the Academics, than to decide upon the question with the Dogmatists, and therefore appears rather to have been a warm admirer and an elegant memorialist of philosophy, than himself to have merited a place in the first order of philosophers. The editions of Cicero’s works, in whole, or in parts, are far too numerous to be specified in this place. We may, however, notice among the most curious or valuable: 1. his whole works, first edition, by Minutianus, Milan, 1498—1499, 4 vols. fol. of great rarity and price 2. By Paul Manutius, Venice, 1540 4to 10 vols. 8vo; 3. By R, Stephens, Paris, 1543, 8 vols. 8vo 4. By Lambinus, Paris, 1566, 2 vols. fol.; 5. Elzivir, Leyden, 1642, 10 vols. 8vo; 6. Gronovius, 11 vols. 12mo, and 4 vols. 4to; 7. Verburgius, Amst. 1724, 2 voLs. fol.; 4 vols. 4to; 8. Ernest, Leipsic, 1774, 8 vols. 8vo 9. Olivet, Paris, 1740, 9 vols. 4to; Geneva, 1758, 9 vols. and Oxford, 1783, 10 vols. 4to; 10. Foulis, Glasgow, 1749, 20 vols. 12mo; 11. Lallemande, Paris, 1768, 12 vols. 12mo. For his separate pieces we must refer to Dibdin and Clarke. Most of his productions have been translated into various languages, and several into English, by Melmoth, Guthrie, Jones, and others. Melmoth, as well as Middleton, has written a life of Cicero, both with some degree of partiality, but with great ability.
ommon abilities soon began to display themselves. Though Des Cartes was at that time the established philosopher of the university, yet Clarke easily mastered the new system
, a very celebrated English divine, the son of Edward Clarke, esq. alderman of Norwich, and M. P., was born there Oct. 11, 1675. He was instructed in classical learning at the free-school of that
town; and in 1691 removed thence to Caius college in
Cambridge, where his uncommon abilities soon began to
display themselves. Though Des Cartes was at that time
the established philosopher of the university, yet Clarke
easily mastered the new system of Newton; and in order
to his first degree of arts, performed a public exercise in
the schools upon a question taken from it; and contributed
to its establishment, by a translation of “Renault’s Physics,
” which he finished bafore he was twenty-two years of
age. It was first published 1697, 8vo. The system of
natural philosophy then generally taught in the university,
was that written by Rohault, founded altogether upon
Cartesian principles, and very badly translated into Latin.
Clarke gave a new translation, and added to it such notes
as might lead students insensibly to more sound notions.
r refractions of light, from dews or vapours, in the evening or morning, with all the precision of a philosopher.
, properly Claude Gele'I;, an inimitable landscape painter, was born at Lorraine in 1600, and served an apprenticeship to the trade of a pastry-cook. In the early part of his life he shewed no symptoms of- that astonishing genius, which in his more advanced years attracted the admiration of the world. He was very little indebted to any master for instruction, except Agostino Tassi, who had been a disciple of Paul Bril, and with great labour taught Claude some of the rules of perspective, and the method of preparing his colours. But although at first be could with difficulty comprehend the rudiments y of the art, yet in the progress of his instructions his rnind seemed to expand; his ideas improved; his imagination became more lively; and with wonderful eagerness he applied himself to his studies. During these he explored the true principles of painting, by an incessant examination of nature, usually studying in the open fields, where he very frequently continued frofn sun-rise till the dusk of the evening. There he sketched whatever he thought beautiful or striking; and every curious tinge of light, on all kinds of objects, he marked in his sketches with a similar colour; from which he gave his landscapes such an appearance of nature and truth, as has rarely been discovered in any artist that ever painted in that style. Sandrart relates, that Claude used to explain to him, as they walked through the fields, the causes of the different appearances of the same prospect at different hours of the day, from the reflections or refractions of light, from dews or vapours, in the evening or morning, with all the precision of a philosopher.
, a celebrated Greek philosopher, of the stoical sect, son of Phanias, and disciple of Zeno,
, a celebrated Greek philosopher, of the
stoical sect, son of Phanias, and disciple of Zeno, was
born at. Assus in Lydia, 33<J B. C. He subsisted by drawing water during the night, that he might pursue his studies by day. Being cited before the areopagus to declare
how he gained his livelihood, he brought with him a gardener and a country-woman, saying that he drew water for
the one, and kneaded dough for the other. The judges
were ordering him a present; but Cleanthes refused to
accept of it. This philosopher was for many years so
poor, that he was obliged to write the heads of his master’s
lectures upon shells and bones, for want of money to buy
paper. But, notwithstanding all his poverty, he persevered in the study of philosophy, and remained a pupil of
Zeno nineteen years. His natural faculties were slow; but
resolution and perseverance enabled him to overcome every
difficulty; and he at last became so complete a master of
the stoic system, that he was perfectly qualified to succeed Zeno in his school. His fellow disciples often ridiculed him for his dulness, by calling him an ass; but he
took no other notice of the sarcasm, than by saying in his
defence, that if he was an ass, he was the better able to
bear the burthen of Zeno’s doctrine. Being reproved for
his timidity, he replied, “It is to this quality that I am
indebted for my innocence.
” Though he was not of the
school of Arcesilaus, when he heard him condemned for
undermining by his doctrine the foundations of virtue, he
candidly apologized for him, by remarking, that though
he might seem an enemy to virtue in his discourses, he
showed himself her friend in his conduct. Arcesilaus
being informed of the handsome apology which Cleanthes had made for him, said to him, “You know how
much I dislike flattery; why will you flatter me?
” “Is it
then flattery,
” replied Cleanthes, “to say of you, that
you speak one thing, and do another?
” Cleanthes frequently advised his pupils to conceive of pleasure, as a
deity sitting on her throne, attended by the virtues, who
are ready on every occasion to whisper in her ear, “Do
nothing which will occasion pain or grief 'to yourself or
others.
” A friend observing him silent in company, said,
“One would think, Cleanthes, from your silence, that
you took no pleasure in conversing with your friends
”
Cleanthes replied, “It is because I know the value of
this pleasure, that I am silent for I wish my friends to
enjoy it as well as myself.
” The reason which he assigned
for the superiority of former philosophers above the present was, that formerly philosophers studied things, whereas now they study only words. When he was old, he still
retained the entire use of his faculties, and often said, that
he should always think life worth preserving as long as he
should be able to write and "study. Long after his death;
which happened in his ninetieth year, the Roman senate
paid respect to his memory, by ordering a statue to be
erected in honour of him at Assus.
end, who was pleased to find such just sentiments of the deity in a heathen, and so much poetry in a philosopher.
He wrote many pieces, none of which are come down to
us, except his “Hymn to Jupiter,
” and a few fragments;
the several editions of which have been enumerated, with
the various readings, and critical remarks, by the learned
reviewer of Butler’s edition of “Marcus Musurus,
” &c.
containing this hymn, and other fragments. It was first
published by Fulvius Ursinus, in 1568; then by Henry
Stephens, in his “Poesis Philosophica,
” in Intellectual System,
” Analecta,
” in Gnomici Poetae;
” a ninth time in,
the “Eclogss Physicse
” of John Stoboeus, published at
Gottingen,
law, to the post of minister of state, and grand chancellor to the late king of Prussia. That royal philosopher entrusted the baron Cocceius with the reform of the administration
, son to the preceding, was born
at Francfort on the Oder, towards the close of the seventeenth century, and died in 1755. He rose by his profound
knowledge of the civil law, to the post of minister of state,
and grand chancellor to the late king of Prussia. That
royal philosopher entrusted the baron Cocceius with the
reform of the administration of justice throughout his dominions. The “Frederkian Code,
” which this minister
compiled in Grotius de jure
belli ac pacis,
” more ample than any that had before appeared, printed 1755 at Lausanne, 5 vols. 4to. The first
volume, which serves as an introduction to the work, is by
Cocceius the father.
, an ancient Italian poet and philosopher, was born at Stignano in Pescia, in 1330, His father, who was
, an ancient Italian poet and philosopher, was born at Stignano in Pescia, in 1330, His father, who was in the army, being involved in the troubles of his country, was obliged to retire to Bologna, where Coluccio was educated, or rather where he taught himself for some time without % master. It appears indeed from a letter which he wrote to Bernardo cli Moglo, that he did not apply himself to the cultivation of polite literature till he was arrived at man’s estate, and that it was then he went to Bologna? and attended the public lectures of the father of the above Bernardo. By his own father’s request, he afterwards studied law, but on his death quitted that profession for eloquence and poetry. It is not stated when he left Bologna, nor when he was permitted to return to Florence; but in 1363, in his thirty-eighth year, we find him the colleague of Francis Bruin, as apostolical secretary to pope Urban V, and it is probable that he quitted this employment when Urban went to France. He quitted at the same time the ecclesiastical habit, and married a lady by whom he had ten children. His reputation for knowledge and eloquence procured him the greatest offers from popes, emperors, and kings; but his love for his native country made him prefer, to the most brilliant prospects, the office of chancellor of the republic of Florence, which was conferred on him in 1375, and which he filled very honourably for thirty years. The letters he wrote appeared so striking to John Galeas Visconti, then at war with the republic, that he declared one letter of Coluccio’s to be more mischievous to his cause than the efforts of a thousand Florentine knights.
, an eminent French philosopher and mathematician, was born at Ribemont in Pirardy, three leagues
, an eminent French philosopher and mathematician, was born at Ribemont in Pirardy, three leagues from Saint-Quintin and De la Fere, September 17, 1743, of a very ancient family. At the age of fifteen he was sent to study philosophy at the college of Navarre, under Giraud de Keroudon, who has since distinguished himself by several scientific works, and was an able teacher of mathematics. During the first year of his residence there, young Condorcet exhibited but little relish for the metaphysical questions relative to the nature of ideas, of sensations, and of memory, but in the course of the following year, mathematics and natural philosophy decided his future vocation; and although he had more than one hundred and twenty fellow-students, he acquired a greater portion of fame than any of them. At Easter he supported a public thesis, at which Clairaut, D'Alembert, and Fontaine, the first geometricians of France, assisted; and his conduct on this occasion obtained their approbation. After his course of philosophy was finished, he returned to his family, but still continued to cultjrate geometry; and his attachment to it carried him back to Paris in 1762, where he lived with his old professor, in order to have more frequent opportunities of indulging his ruling passion. He at the same time attended the chemical lectures of Macquer and Beaume, and soon distinguished himself among the geometricians.
for their direct tendency a contempt for the order Providence has established in the world. But as a philosopher, it is not very probable that Condorcet will hereafter be known,
Condorcet’s private character is described by La Lande, as easy, quiet, kind, and obliging, but neither his conversation nor his external deportment bespoke the fire of his genius. D'Alembert used to compare him to a volcano covered with snow. His public character may be estimated by what has been related. Nothing was more striking in him than the dislike, approaching to implacable hatred, which he entertained against the Christian religion; his philosophical works, if we do not consider them as the reveries of a sophist, have for their direct tendency a contempt for the order Providence has established in the world. But as a philosopher, it is not very probable that Condorcet will hereafter be known, while his discoveries and improvements in geometrical studies will ever be noticed to his honour. If he was not superior to his contemporaries, he excelled them all in the early display of talent; and it would have been happy for him ancl his country, had he been only a geometrician.
, or Con-Fu-Tsee, the celebrated Chinese philosopher, was born in the kingdom of Lou, which is at present the province
, or Con-Fu-Tsee, the celebrated Chinese
philosopher, was born in the kingdom of Lou, which is at
present the province of Chan Long, in the 2 1 st year of the
reign of Ling van, the 23d emperor of the race of Tcheou,
551 years B. C. He was contemporary with Pythagoras,
and a little before Socrates. He was but three years old
when he lost his father Tcho leang he, who had enjoyed
the highest offices of the kingdom of Long; but left no
other inheritance to his son, except the honour of descending from Ti ye, the 27th emperor of the second race of
the Chang. His mother, whose name wasChing, and who
sprung originally from the illustrious family of the Yen,
lived twenty-one years after the death of her husband,
Confucius did not grow in knowledge by degrees, as children ordinarily do, but seemed to arrive at reason and the
perfect use of his faculties almost from his infancy. Taking no delight in amusements proper for his age, he had
a grave and serious deportment, which gained him respect,
and was joined with an appearance of unexampled artd
exalted piety. He honoured his relations; he endeavoured
in all things to imitate his grandfather, who was then alive
in China, and a most holy man: and it was observable,
that he never ate any thing but he prostrated himself upon
the ground, and offered it first to the supreme Lord of
heaven. One day, while he was a child, he heard his
grandfather fetch, a deep sigh; and going up to him with
many bowings and much reverence, “May I presume,
”
says he, “without losing the respect I owe you, to inquire
into the occasion of your grief? perhaps you fear that
your posterity should degenerate from your virtue, and
dishonour you by their vices.
” “What put this thought
into your head,
” says Coum-tse to him, “and where have
you learnt to speak after this manner?
” “From yourself,
”
replied Confucius: “I attend diligently to you every time
you speak; and I have often heard you say, that a son r
who does not by his virtue support thfe glory of his ancestors, does not deserve to bear their name.
” After his
grandfather’s death he applied himself to Tcem-se, a celebrated doctor of his time; and, under the direction of
so great a master, soon made a surprising progress in antiquity, which he considered as the source from whence
all genuine knowledge was to be drawn. This love for the
ancients very nearly cost him his life when he was not
more than sixteen years of age. Falling into discourse
one day about the Chinese books with a person of high
quality, who thought them obscure, and not worth the
pains of searching into, “The books you despise,
” says
Confucius, “are full of profound knowledge, which is not
to be attained but by the wise and learned: and the
people would think cheaply of them, could they comprehend them of themselves. This subordination of spirits,
by which the ignorant are dependent upon the knowing,
is very useful, and even necessary in society. Were all
families equally rich and equally powerful, there could not
subsist any form of government; but there would happen a
yet stranger disorder, if mankind were all equally knowing,
viz. every one would be for governing, and none would
think themselves obliged to obey. Some time ago,
” added
Confucius, “an ordinary fellow made the same observation to me about the books as you have done, and from
such a one indeed nothing better could be expected:
but I wonder that you, a doctor, should thus be found
speaking like one of the lowest of the people.
” This rebuke had indeed the good effect of silencing the mandarin,
and bringing him to a better opinion of the learning of his
country; yet vexed him so at the same time, as it came
from almost a boy, that he would have revenged it by
violence, if he had not been prevented.
em back to reason and their duty. But all his endeavours proved ineffectual, and the severity of the philosopher was obliged to give way to the overbearing fashion of the court.
Confucius, wisely persuaded that the people could never be happy under such circumstances, resolved to preach up a severe morality; and, accordingly, he began to enforce temperance, justice, and other virtues, to inspire a contempt of riches and outward pomp, to excite to magnanimity and a greatness of soul, which should make men ipcapable of dissimulation and insincerity; and used all the means he could think of to redeem his countrymen from a life of pleasure to a life of reason. In this pursuit, his extensive knowledge and great wisdom soon made him known, and his integrity and the splendour of his virtues made him beloved. Kings were governed by his counsels, and the people reverenced him as a saint. He was offered several high offices in the magistracy, which he sometimes accepted, but always with a view of reforming a currupt state, and amending mankind; and never failed to resign those offices, as soon as he perceived that he could be no longer useful. On one occasion he was raised to a considerable place of trust in the kingdom of Lou, his own native country: before he had exercised his charge about three months, the court and provinces, through his counsels and management, became quite altered. He corrected many frauds and abuses in traffic, and reduced the weights and measures to their proper standard. He inculcated fidelity and candour amongst the men, and exhorted the women to chastity and a simplicity of manners. By such methods he wrought a general reformation, and established every where such concord and unanimity, that the whole kingdom seemed as if it were but one great family. This, however, instead of exciting the example, provoked the jealousy of the neighbouring princes, who fancied that a king, under the counsels of such a man as Confucius, would quickly render himself too powerful; since nothing can make a state flourish more than good order among the members, and an exact observance of its laws. Alarmed at this, the king of Tsi assembled his ministers to consider of putting a stop to the career of this new government; and, after some deliberations, the following expedient was resolved upon. They got together a great number of young girls of extraordinary beauty, who had been instructed from their infancy in singing and dancing, and were perfectly mistresses of all those charms and accomplishments which might please and captivate the heart. These, under the pretext of an embassy, they presented to the king of Lou, and to the grandees of his court. The present was joyfully received, and had its desired effect. The arts of good government were immediately neglected, and nothing was thought of but inventing new pleasures for the entertainment of the fair strangers. In short, nothing was regarded for some months but feasting, dancing, shows, &c. and the court was entirely dissolved in luxury and pleasure. Confucius had foreseen all this, and endeavoured to prevent it by advising the refusal of the pressnt; and he now laboured to take off the delusion they were fallen into, and to bring them back to reason and their duty. But all his endeavours proved ineffectual, and the severity of the philosopher was obliged to give way to the overbearing fashion of the court. Upon this he immediately quitted his employment, exiling himself at the same time from his native country, to try if he could find in other kingdoms, minds and dispositions more fit to relish and pursue his maxims.
e found among the Grecian sages; all these would almost tempt one to believe that he wa.s not a mere philosopher formed by reason only, but a man raised up for the reformation
He sent 600 of his disciples into different parts of the
empire, to reform the manners of the people; and, not
satisfied with, benefiting his own country only, he made
frequent resolutions to pass the seas, and propagate his
doctrine to the farthest parts of the world. Hardly any
thing can be added to the purity of his morality. He
seems rather to speak like a doctor of a revealed law, than
a man who had no light but what the law of nature afforded
him, and he taught as forcibly by example as by precept.
In short, his gravity and sobriety, his rigorous abstinence,
his contempt of riches, and what are commonly called the
goods of this life, his continual attention and watchfulness
pver his actions, and, above all, that modesty and humility
which are npt to be found among the Grecian sages; all
these would almost tempt one to believe that he wa.s not a
mere philosopher formed by reason only, but a man raised
up for the reformation of the world, and to check that torrent of idolatry and superstition which was about to overspread that particular part of it. He is said to have lived
secretly three years, and to have spent the latter part of
his life in sorrow. A few days before his last illness, he
told his disciples with tears in his eyes, that he was overcome with grief at the sight of the disorders which prevailed in the empire: “The mountain,
” said he, “is fallen, the high machine is demolished, and the sages are all
fled/' His meaning was, that the edifice of perfection,
which he had endeavoured to raise, was entirely overthrown. He began to languish from that time; and the
7th day before his death,
” the kings,“said he,
” reject
my maxims; and since I am no longer useful on the earth,
I may as well leave it.“After these words he fell into a
lethargy, and at the end of seven days expired in the arms
of his disciples, in his seventy-third year. Upon the first
hearing of his death, Ngai cong, who then reigned in the
kingdom of Lou, could not refrain from tears:
” The Tien
is not satisfied with me,“cried he,
” since it has taken
away Confucius.“Confucius was lamented by the whole
empire, which from that moment began to honour him as
a saint. Kings have built palaces for him in all the provinces, whither the learned go at certain times to pay him
homage. There are to be seen upon several edifices,
raised in honour of him, inscriptions in large characters,
” To the great master.“” To the head doctor.“” To
the saint.“” To the teacher of emperors and kings."
They built his sepulchre near the 'city Kio fou, on the
banks of the river Su, where he was wont to assemble his
disciples; and they have since inclosed it with walls, which
look like a small city to this very day.
ined, and the fine principles of morality they taught, yet such was the unparalleled modesty of this philosopher, that he ingenuously ponfessed, that the doctrine was not his
Confucius did not trust altogether to the memory of his
disciples for the preservation of his philosophy; but composed several books: and though these books were greatly
admired for the doctrines they contained, and the fine
principles of morality they taught, yet such was the unparalleled modesty of this philosopher, that he ingenuously
ponfessed, that the doctrine was not his own, but was much
more ancient; and that he had done nothing more than
collect it from those wise legislators Yao and Chun, who
lived 1500 years before him. These books are held in the
liighest esteem and veneration, because they contain all
that he had collected relating to the ancient laws, which
are looked upon as the most perfect rule of government.
The number of these classical and canonical books, for so
it seems they are called, is four. The first is entitled “Ta
Hio, the Grand Science, or the School of the Adults.
” It
is this that beginners ought to study first, as the porch of
the temple of wisdom and virtue. It treats of the care we
ought to take in governing ourselves, that we may be able
afterwards to govern others: and of perseverance in the
chief good, which, according to him, is nothing but a conformity of our actions to right reason. It was chiefly designed for princes and grandees, who ought to govern their
people wisely. “The whole science of princes,
” says
Confucius, “consists in cultivating and perfecting the reasonable nature they have received from Tien, and in restoring that light and primitive clearness of judgment,
which has been weakened and obscured by various passions,
that it may be afterwards in a capacity to labour the perfections of others. To succeed then,
” says he, “we should
begin within ourselves; and to this end it is necessary to
have an insight into the nature of things, and to gain the
knowledge of good and evil; to determine the will toward
a love of this good, and an hatred of this evil: to preserve
integrity of heart, and to regulate the manners according
to reason. When a man has thus renewed himself, there
will be less difficulty in renewing others: and by this means
concord and union reign in families, kingdoms are governed according to the laws, and the whole empire enjoys
peace and tranquillity.
”
We must not conclude our account of this celebrated philosopher, without mentioning one most remarkable particular relating
We must not conclude our account of this celebrated
philosopher, without mentioning one most remarkable particular relating to him, which is this; viz. that in spite of
all the pains he had taken to establish pure religion and
sound morality in the empire, he was nevertheless the innocent occasion of their corruption. There goes a tradition in China, that when Confucius was complimented
upon the excellency of his philosophy, and his own conformity thereto, he modestly declined the honour that was
done him, and said, that “he greatly fell short of the
most perfect degree of virtue, but that in the west the
most holy was to be found.
” Most of the missionaries who
relate this are firmly persuaded that Confucius foresaw the
coming of the Messiah, and meant to predict it in this short
sentence; but whether he did or not, it is certain that it
has always made a very strong impression upon the learned in China: and the emperor Mimti, who reigned 65
years after the birth of Christ, was so touched with this
saying of Confucius, together with a dream, in which he
saw the image of a holy person coming from the west, that
he fitted out a fleet, with orders to sail till they had found
him, and to bring back at least his image and his writings.
The persons sent upon this expedition, not daring to
venture farther, went a-shore upon a little island not far from
the Red Sea, where they found the statue of Fohi, who
had infected the Indies with his doctrines 500 years before
the birth of Confucius. This they carried back to China,
together with the metempsychosis, and the other reveries
of this Indian philosopher. The disciples of Confucius at
first oppossed these newly imported doctrines with all the
vigour imaginable; inveighing vehemently against Mimti,
who introduced them, and denouncing the judgment of
heaven on such emperors as should support them. But all
their endeavours were vain; the torrent bore hard against
them, and the pure religion and sound morality of Confucius were soon corrupted, and in a manner overwhelmed,
by the prevailing idolatries and superstitions which were
introduced with the idol Fohi.
, was a mathematician and philosopher of Samos, who flourished about the 130th olympiad, being a
, was a mathematician and philosopher of Samos,
who flourished about the 130th olympiad, being a contemporary and friend of Archimedes, to whom Conon communicated his writings, and sent him some problems, which
Archimedes received with approbation, saying they ought
to be published while Conon was living, for he comprehended them with ease, and could give a proper demonstration of them. At another time he laments the loss of
Conon, thus admiring his genius: “How many theorems
in geometry,
” says he, “which at first seemed impossible,
would in time have been brought to perfection! Alas 1
Conon, though he invented many, with which he enriched
geometry, had not time to perfect them, but left many in
the dark, being prevented by death.
” He had an uncommon skill in mathematics, joined to an extraordinary patience and application. This is farther confirmed by a letter sent to Archimedes by a friend of Conon’s. “Having
heard of Conon’s death, with whose friendship I was honoured, and with whom you kept an intimate correspondence; as he was thoroughly versed in geometry, I greatly
lament the loss of a sincere friend, and a person of surprising knowledge in mathematics. I then determined to send
to you, as I had before done to him, a theorem in geometry, hitherto observed by no one.
”
When in 1737, Morgan had published his “Moral Philosopher,” the dean had it in contemplation to answer that work, so far
When in 1737, Morgan had published his “Moral Philosopher,
” the dean had it in contemplation to answer that
work, so far as the general scheme of the writer might be
thought to deserve it; and he had prepared many materials
for this purpose. The design, for what reason we know
not, was never carried into execution; and the omission
may be regretted, though it must at the same time be acknowledged, that Dr. Morgan was encountered by a number
of very able and successful antagonists. It is to the honour of dean Conybeare’s temper, that he expressed his
hope, that none of the animadverters on the “Moral Philosopher
” would be provoked to imitate his scurrilities. In
1738, the dean was requested to preach the sermon at the
annual meeting of the several charity-schools in London,
which he did from Galatians vi. 9; and the discourse was
published. In 1747, he met with a great domestic affliction, in the loss of his lady, who departed this life on the
29th of Octoher, after their union had subsisted not much
longer than fourteen years. When, on the 25th of April,
1749, a day of solemn thanksgiving was held, on account
of the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which had been signed
on the 18th of October in the preceding year, Dr. Conybeare was fixed upon to preach before the honourable house
of commons on this occasion. The subject was, “True
Patriotism.
”
m. But in the “Moralists,” he is the emulator of Plato, in the boldest poetic manner of that eminent philosopher. Bishop Hurd ranks it among the best compositions of the kind
It remains now to notice more particularly the writings
of lord Shaftesbury, which by one class of critics, have received the most extravagant applause, and, by another,
have been the subjects of indiscriminate condemnation.
They have been examined with a critical eye, and in rather an elaborate manner, by Dr. Kippis, to whose article,
in the Biographia Britannica, we refer the reader, contenting ourselves with a brief outline. Lord Shaftesbury’s
“Letter on Enthusiasm
” was written from excellent motives it contains many admirable remarks, delivered in a
neat and lively strain but it wants precision conveys but
little information and contains some exceptionable passages. The same character may be given, with truth and
justice, of “The Essay on the Freedom of Wit and Huphour,
” designed to defend the application of ridicule to
subjects of speculative inquiry, and among others to religious opinions. His “Soliloquy, or Advice to an Author,
”
met with more general approbation. It contains a variety
of excellent matter; and what the noble lord has advanced
in recommendation of self-examination, and in defence of
critics and criticism, is particularly valuable: it is evidently the result of the author’s knowledge and refined
taste in books, in life, and manners. Lord Shaftesbury’s
“Enquiry concerning Virtue
” obtained more general applause, although in some points it is liable to objection.
It is ably and finely written, and maintains with great force
the important truth, that virtue -is the greatest happiness,
and vice the greatest misery of men. In this “Enquiry,
”
the noble author appeared in the close, the logical, and
the didactic form. But in the “Moralists,
” he is the emulator of Plato, in the boldest poetic manner of that eminent
philosopher. Bishop Hurd ranks it among the best compositions of the kind in our language. Its matter is highly
valuable and important, and presents us with a truly argumentative and eloquent defence of the doctrines of a Deity
and a Providence. The “Miscellaneous Reflections on
the preceding treatises, and other critical subjects,
” are
intended as a sort of defence and explanation of his former
works; but, although they contain a variety of just and ingenious remarks, they abound with many exceptionable
passages concerning revelation. With respect to the style
of lord Shaftesbury, we may quote the opinion of Dr.
Blair, which is at once accurate and judicious. “His language has many beauties; it is firm and supported in an
uncommon degree; it is rich and musical. No English
author has attended so much to the regular construction
of his sentences, both with respect to propriety and
with respect to cadence. All this gives so much elegance and pomp to his language, that there is no
wonder it should sometimes be highly admired. It is
greatly hurt, however, by perpetual stiffness and affectation. This is its capital fault. His lordship can express nothing with simplicity. He seems to have considered it as vulgar, and beneath the dignity of a man of
quality, to speak like other men. Hence he is ever in
buskins, full of circumlocutions and artificial elegance. In
every sentence we see the marks of labour and art; nothing
of that ease which expresses a sentiment coming natural
and warm from the heart. Of figures and ornaments o/
every kind he is exceedingly fond; sometimes happy in
them; but his fondness for them is too visible, and having
once laid hold of some metaphor or allusion that pleased,
he knows not how to part with it. What is most wonderful,
he was a professed admirer of simplicity; is always extolling it in the ancients, and censuring the moderns for
want of it, though he departs from it himself as far as any
one modern whatever. Lord Shaftesbury possessed
delicacy and refinement of taste to a degree that we may call
excessive and sickly; but he had little warmth of passion;
few strong or vigorous feelings; and the coldness of his
character led him to that artificial and stately manner which
appears in his writings. He is fonder of nothing than of
wit and raillery; but he is far from being happy in it. He
attempts it often, but always awkwardly: he is stiff even in
his pleasantry, and laughs in form like an author, and not
like a man.
” Lord Shaftesbury sometimes professed himself
a Christian; but his writings, in many parts, render his faith
in the divine mission of Christ very questionable. The noble
lord left one son, Anthony Ashley Cooper, the fourth earl,
of whom the learned Bp. Huntingford says, “there never
existed a man of more benevolence, moral worth, and true
piety.
” He was the author of the life of his father, in the
great General Dictionary, including Bayle. It may not
be improper to add in this place, that the translator of
Xenophon’s Cyropedia was the honourable Maurice Ashley
Cooper, brother to the third earl.
e bar, which he quitted for the philosophy of Descartes. Bossuet, who was no less an admirer of that philosopher, procured him the appointment of reader to the dauphin, which
, a French historian, was
born at Paris, of a noble family, originally of Auvergne,
and having studied law, was admitted to the bar, which he
quitted for the philosophy of Descartes. Bossuet, who
was no less an admirer of that philosopher, procured him
the appointment of reader to the dauphin, which office he
filled with success and zeal, and died the 8th of October
1684, member of the French academy, at an advanced age.
We are indebted to his pen for, 1. “The general History of
France during the two first races of its kings,
” CEuvres de feu M. de Cordemoi.
”
They contain useful investigations, judicious thoughts,
and sensible reflections on the method of writing history.
He had adopted in philosophy, as we before observed, the
sentiments of Descartes, but without servility; he even
sometimes differs from them. In the latter part of his life,
he was assisted in his literary labours by his son Lewis, who
was born in 1651, and who became successively a licentiate
of Sorbonne, and an abbot in the diocese of Clermont.
He was a voluminous writer, chiefly on theological subjects; and was considered among the catholics as an able
advocate of their cause against the attacks of the defenders
of protestantism. He was, however, of considerable service to his father in the latter part-of his “General History
of France;
” and, it is believed, wrote the whole of that
part which extends from about the conclusion of the reign
of Lewis V. to the end of the work. By order of Lewis
XIV. he continued that history from the time of Hugh
Capet until the year 1660, which he did not live to finish.
He died at the age of seventy-one, in the year 1722.
, a celebrated mathematician, philosopher, and astronomer, was born July 10, 1682, at Burbach in Leicestershire,
, a celebrated mathematician, philosopher, and astronomer, was born July 10, 1682, at Burbach in Leicestershire, where his father Robert was rector. He was first placed at Leicester school; where, at only twelve years of age, he discovered a strong inclination to the mathematics. This being observed by his uncle, the rev. Mr. John Smith, he gave him all imaginable encouragement; and prevailed with his father to send him for some time to his house in Lincolnshire, that he might assist him in those studies. Here he laid the foundation of that deep and extensive knowledge, for which he was afterwards so deservedly famous. He removed from thence to London, and was sent to St. Paul’s school; where also he made a great progress in classical learning; yet found so much leisure as to keep a constant correspondence with his uncle, not only in mathematics, but also in metaphysics, philosophy, and divinity. This fact is said to have been often mentioned by professor Saunderson. His next remove was to Cambridge; where, April 6, 1699, he was admitted of Trinity college; and at Michaelmas 1705, after taking his first degree in arts, chosen fellow of it. He was at the same time tutor to Anthony earl of Harold, and the lord Henry de Grey, sons of the then marquis (afterwards duke of) Kent, to which noble family Mr. Cotes was related.
The early death of Mr. Cotes is always spoken of with regret by every mathematician and every philosopher; since, if his life had been continued, he would undoubtedly
The early death of Mr. Cotes is always spoken of with regret by every mathematician and every philosopher; since, if his life had been continued, he would undoubtedly have proved one of the greatest men which this country has produced.
ge, it is probable that I shall hear from him no more: but I shall always respect him. He is truly a philosopher, according to my judgment of the character, every tittle of
If we have few particulars of the life of Dr. Cotton, we
have many testimonies to the excellence of his character.
We find from Mr. Hayley’s Life of Cowper, that he had at
one time among his patients, that amiable and interesting
poet, who speaks of Dr. Cotton’s services in a manner that
forms a noble tribute to his memory: and Mr. Hayley says,
that Dr. Cotton was “a scholar and a poet, who added to
many accomplishments, a peculiar sweetness of manners,
in very advanced life,
” when Mr. Hayley had the pleasure
of a personal acquaintance with him. In a subsequent part
of his Life of Cowper, the latter, alluding to an inquiry
respecting Dr. Cotton’s works, pays the following compliment to his abilities: “I did not know that he had written
any thing newer than his Visions: 1 have no doubt that it
is so far worthy of him as to be pious and sensible, and I
believe no man living is better qualified to write on such
subjects as his title seems to announce. Some years have
passed since I heard from him, and considering his great
age, it is probable that I shall hear from him no more:
but I shall always respect him. He is truly a philosopher,
according to my judgment of the character, every tittle of
his knowledge in natural subjects being connected in his
mind with the firm belief of an omnipotent agent.
” His
writings, indeed, are uniformly in favour of piety and benevolence, and his correspondence, from which many extracts are given in the lute edition of his Works, justifies
the high respect in which he was held by his numerous
friends. His prose pieces consist of reflections on some
parts of scripture, which he has entitled “Sermons;
” and
various essays on health, husbandry, zeal, marriage, and
other miscellaneous topics. One of these, entitled “Mirza
to Selim
” (an imitation of Lyttelton’s Persian Letters) is
said to relate to the death of the Rev. Robert Romney, D, D.
vicar of St. Alban’s, which happened in 1743. When
dying, this gentleman prophesied that his brother and
heir would not long enjoy his inheritance, which proved
true, as he died in June 1746. Some of these essays were
probably written for the periodical journals, and others
for the amusement of private friends. As a poet, he wrote
with ease, and had a happy turn for decorating his reflections in familiar verse: but we find very little that is original, fanciful, or vigorous. He scarcely ever attempts
imagery, or description, and nowhere rises beyond a certain level diction adapted to the class of readers whom he
was most anxious to please. Yet his “Visions
” have been
popular, and deserve to continue so. Every sensible and
virtuous mind acquiesces in the truth and propriety of his
moral reflections, and will love the poems for the sake of
the writer.
afterwards incorporated in the Cyclopaedia. The marquis de Courtivron, says his eulogist, was a true philosopher. As he had properly appreciated life, he resigned it without
, chevalier de Saint-Louis, and veteran pensionary of the academy of sciences, born at Dijon in 1715,
died the 4th of October, 1785, at the age of 70. He
signalized himself both as a military and a literary man. Being
wounded in the campaign of Bavaria, in the act of saving
marshal Saxe from the most imminent danger, he devoted
himself to the cultivation of mathematics and natural philosophy, and communicated to the French academy several valuable memoirs on those sciences. His separate publications were, 1. “A treatise of Optics,
” Memoirs of an Epizootia which raged in Burgundy.
” 3. “The Art of Forges
and Furnaces;
” this he wrote in partnership with M.
Bouchu, which was afterwards incorporated in the Cyclopaedia. The marquis de Courtivron, says his eulogist,
was a true philosopher. As he had properly appreciated
life, he resigned it without disquietude, and perhaps without regret. The only sentiment to be perceived through
the serenity and silence of his last moments, was that of
gratitude for the tenderness that was shewn him, and a
constant attention to spare the sensibility of his family and
friends.
by his pen. He began his career by certain fugitive pieces, of which some, as the “Discovery of the Philosopher’s stone,” in imitation of Swift, and the “Miraculous year,”
, who was born at Baumeles-Nones
in Franche-Comtt;, and died at Paris July 18, 1782, in an
advanced age, was for some time a Jesuit. Having quitted
that society, he repaired to the capital about 1751, and
sought a livelihood by his pen. He began his career by
certain fugitive pieces, of which some, as the “Discovery
of the Philosopher’s stone,
” in imitation of Swift, and the
“Miraculous year,
” had the most success. These trifles
were collected under the very suitable title of “Bagatelles
morales.
” Some of the pieces in this collection are written,
with ease, delicacy, and sprightliness; but irony being the
favourite figure with the author, the style of it is too monotonous, and the witticisms sometimes too far fetched.
There was visible in the writings of the abbe Coyer, as
well as in his conversation, a perpetual effort at being
agreeable, which he was unable to sustain to any length.
Besides some temporary pieces, the abbé Coyer also wrote,
1. “The History of John Sobieski,
” Travels in Italy and Holland,
” New observations on England,
” Noblesse Commenjante,
” 2 vols. 8vo, and a little
romance entitled “Chinki, histoire Cochin-Chinoise,
”
which made more noise in France than his “Bagatelles,
”
and are said to have contributed to two important changes
in France, the granting of letters of noblesse to eminent
merchants, and the abolition of wardenships. 5. “Plan
d'education publique,
” Mons. Abbe, do you know the difference which I find
between you and Don Quixote It is, that he took inns for
castles, and you take castles for inns.
”
Craig had nearly finished his theological and philosophical course. W T ith this amiable and eminent philosopher he was early and intimately connected. Com-mencing preacher
, a divine of the church of Scotland, was the son of a merchant in Glasgow, where he was horn in February 1709; and in the seminaries of education in that city, he began and prosecuted his studies. At college he distinguished himself by his early taste and uncommon proficiency in classical learning; and received great assistance and encouragement from his kinsman the rev. Mr. Clerk, of Neilston in Renfrewshire. The moral philosophy of the ancients engaged his attention in a particular manner: and the moral writers of Greece and Rome were his favourite authors. By the attentive perusal of their works, and of the moral poets of antiquity, he had committed to his memory a great number of their most striking passages, and used to apply them occasionally, in the company of his select friends, with great ease, judgment, and ingenuity. In this he had an excellent example in the practice of his friend and instructor, the justly-celebrated Dr. Hutcheson, who was elected to the professorship of moral philosophy in the university of Glasgow about the time that Craig had nearly finished his theological and philosophical course. W T ith this amiable and eminent philosopher he was early and intimately connected. Com-mencing preacher in 1734, his philosophical monitor embraced every opportunity of hearing him; and with a frankness which shewed the opinion he entertained of the candour and abilities of his disciple, he offered such remarks on his sermons as he thought necessary. He particularly admonished him against a propensity to which young clergymen of ability are very liable, of indulging themselves in abstruse and philosophical disquisition. He advised, because he knew he was able to follow the advice, to preach to and from the heart. He did so. Habitually pious, ardently devout, and deeply interested in the welfare of those who listened to his instruction, he delivered himself with genuine and becoming earnestness. This was the spirit that directed his manner, which was solemn, yet animated; earnest, but correct; and though correct, not formal.
, the last celebrated philosopher of the Old Academy, a native of Soli in Cilicia, flourished
, the last celebrated philosopher of the Old
Academy, a native of Soli in Cilicia, flourished about 30O
years B. C. and died about the 270th year B. C. He studied under Xenocrates and Polemo; and he was the first
who wrote commentaries on the works of Plato, whose system he supported. He was highly celebrated for the purity
of his moral doctrine, as we may infer from the praises
that are bestowed by the ancients upon his discourse “On
Grief,
” which Cicero calls “a small but golden piece,
adapted to heal the wounds of the mind, not by encouraging stoical insensibility, but by suggesting arguments
drawn from the purest fountains of philosophy.
” That
Grantor acquired great reputation as a moral preceptor is
intimated by Horace.
, the most distinguished philosopher of the Cynic sect after Diogenes, was by birth a Theban, and
, the most distinguished philosopher of the
Cynic sect after Diogenes, was by birth a Theban, and
flourished about the 113th olympiad, B. C. 328, and died
after the year 287 B. C. He was honourably descended,
and inherited a large estate; but when he devoted himself
to philosophy, that he might be free from the dominion
of those passions which are fostered by wealth, he distributed his whole properly among the poorer citizens. Leaving his native city, where he had been a disciple of Bryso,
he went to Athens, and hecame a zealous disciple of Diogenes adopting all the singularities of his master. In his
natural temper, however, he was not, like Diogenes, morose and gloomy, but cheerful and facetious. The following whimsical tarif of expences is attributed to him: To a
cook should be given two minae, to a physician a drachma,
to a flatterer five talents, to an adviser smoke, a talent to
a courtezan, and three oboles to a philosopher. Being
asked of what use philosophy was to him? “To teach me,
”
returned he, “to be contented with a vegetable diet, and
to live exempt from care and trouble.
” Alexander, curious to see this Cynic, offered to rebuild Thebes, the
place of his nativity; “To what purpose?
” interrogated
Crates; “Another Alexander will destroy it afresh. The
contempt of fame, and my complacency with poverty
stand me in stead of a country: these are comforts that are
above the reach of fortune.
” Patient under injuries, he
took no other revenge for a blow he had received from a
certain Nicodromus, than by writing under the mark of it
on his cheek, “Nicodromus fecit.
” This disposition attached to him many friends, and procured for him access
to the houses of the most wealthy Athenians, and he frequently became an arbiter of disputes and quarrels among
relations. His influence in private families is said to have
had a great e fleet in correcting the luxuries and vices which
prevailed at that time in Athens. His wife, Hipparchia,
who was rich and of a good family, and had many suitors,
preferred Crates to every other, and when her parents opposed her inclination, so determined was her passion, she
threatened to put an end to her life. Crates, at the request of her parents, represented to Hipparchia every circumstance in his condition and manner of -living, which
might induce her to change her mind. Slill she persisted
in her resolution, and not only became his wife, but adopted
all the Cynic peculiarities. Disgraceful tales have been
circulated concerning Crates and his wife; but since they
do not appear in any writings of the period in which they
lived, and are neither mentioned by Epictetus, who wrote
an apology for the Cynic philosophy, nor by Lucian or
Athenxus, who were so industrious in accumulating calumnies against philosophers, Brucker thinks they must be
set down among the malicious fictions of later writers, who
were desirous to bring the Cynic and Stoic sects into discredit. Had either Diogenes or Crates been the beasts
which some have represented them, it is wholly incredible
that Zeno and the Stoics would have treated their memory
with so much respect.
nerosity supplied that defect. Creech certainly distinguished himself much; and was accounted a good philosopher and poet, and a severe student. June 13, 1683, he took the degree
, an English poet, chiefly noted for
his translatious of ancient authors, was son of Thomas
Creech, and born near Sherbourne in Dorsetshire, 1659.
He was educated in grammar learning under Mr. Gurganven of Sherbourne, to whom he afterwards dedicated a
translation of one of Theocritus’s Idylliums; and entered
a commoner of Wadham college in Oxford, 1675. Wood
tells us, that his father was a gentleman; but Jacob says,
in his “Lives and Characters of English Poets,
” that his
parents were not in circumstances sufficient to support him
through a liberal education, but that his disposition and
capacity for learning raised him up a patron in colonel
Strangeways, whose generosity supplied that defect.
Creech certainly distinguished himself much; and was
accounted a good philosopher and poet, and a severe student. June 13, 1683, he took the degree of M. A. and not
long after was elected probationer fellow of All-souls college; to which, Jacob observes, the great reputation acquired by his translation of Lucretius recommended him.
Wood tells us, that upon this occasion he gave singular
proofs of his classical learning and philosophy before his
examiners. In 1696 he took his degree of bachelor of
divinity, and began to be well known by the works he published; but they were of no great advantage to his fortune,
since his circumstances were always indifferent. In 1699,
having taken orders, he was presented by his college to the
living of Welwyn in Hertfordshire; but while at Oxford,
on another occasion, in June 1700, he put an end to his
life. The motives of this fatal catastrophe have been variously represented. M. Bernard informs us, in the “
Republic of Letters,
” that in 1700, Creech fell in love with a,
woman, who treated him contemptuously, though she was
complaisant enough to others; that not being able to digest
this usage, he was resolved not to survive it; and that he
hanged himself in his study, in which situation he was
found three days after. Jacob says nothing of the particular manner of his death, but only that he unfortunately
made away with himself: which he ascribes to a naturally
morose and splenetic temper, too apt to despise the understandings and performances of others. “This,
” says Jacob, “made him less esteemed than his great merit deserved; and his resentments on this account frequently
engaged him in those heats and disputes which in the end
proved fatal to him.
” But from an original letter of Arthur Charlett, preserved in the Bodleian library, it has
lately been discovered, that this unhappy event was owing
to a very different cause. There was a fellow collegian of
whom Creech frequently borrowed money; but repeating
his applications too often, he met one day with such a
cold reception, that he retired in a fit of gloomy disgust,
and in three days was found hanging in his room: and
Mr. Malone has more recently published a letter from Dr.
Tanner, by which it appears that Creech had before exhibited marks of insanity.
ic fever, 1633. Father Simon’s opinion of him may be quoted as generic. “Crellius is a grammarian, a philosopher, and a divine throughout. He has a wonderful address in adapting
, a once celebrated writer of the
Sociriian persuasion, was born in Franconia in 1590, and
after some early education received from his father, studied
at Nuremberg, and other German schools or universities.
He was brought up in the Lutheran church, but in the
course of his reading, having formed to himself a set of
opinions nearly coinciding with those of Socinus, he declined the offers of promotion in the Lutheran church,
where he probably would not have been favourably received, and determined to go to Poland, where such opinions as his were no bar to advancement. In 1612 he
went to Racow, and besides becoming a preacher, was appointed Greek professor and afterwards rector of the university. His theological works form a considerable part of
the works’ of the “Fratres Poloni,
” and he engaged in a
controversy with Grotius, who had written against Socinus,
and a correspondence, of great politeness, took place between them, which made Grotius be suspected of inclining
too much to the opinions of his antagonist. He certainly
carried his politeness very far, when he told Crellius that
“he was, grieved to see so much enmity between those,
who call themselves Christians, for such trifling matters,
”
these matters being no less than the doctrine of the Trinity, and the divinity and atonement of Jesus Christ.
Crellius, we are told, like many of his descendants, would
not be called a Socinian, but an Artemonite, after Artemon, who lived in the reign of the emperor Severus, and
denied the pre-existence and divinity of Christ. Crellius’
opinions on other subjects will not probably procure him
much respect, at least from one sex. In his “Ethics,
”
he is said to maintain that it is lawful for men upon certain
occasions to beat their wives! Crellius died at Racow, of
an epidemic fever, 1633. Father Simon’s opinion of him
may be quoted as generic. “Crellius is a grammarian, a
philosopher, and a divine throughout. He has a wonderful address in adapting St. Paul’s words to his own prejudices. He supports the doctrines of his sect with so much
subtlety, that he does not seem to say any thing of himself, but to make the scriptures speak for him, even where
they are most against him.
”
, who was present upon the occasion, that Crichton was opposed by Archangel us Mercenarius, a famous philosopher, and that he acquitted himself so well as to obtain the approbation
The chief design of Crichton in this poem was to obtain a favourable reception at Venice, and particularly from Aldus JMamitius, whose praises he celebrates in very high strains. When he presented his verses to Manutins, that critic was struck with a very agreeable surprise; and judged, from the performance, that the author of it must be a person of extraordinary genius. Upon discoursing with the stranger, he was filled with admiration; and, finding him to be skilled in every subject, he introduced him to the acquaintance of the principal men of learning and note in Venice. Here he contracted an intimate friendship not only with Aldus Manutius, but with Laurentius Massa, Spero Speronius, Johannes Donatus, and various other learned persons, to whom he presented several poems in commendation of the city and university. Three of CrichtoH's odes, one addressed to Aldus Manutius, and another to Laurentius Massa, and a third to Johannes Donatus, are still preserved; but are certainly not the productions either of an extraordinary genius, or a correct writer. At length he was introduced to the doge and senate; in whose presence he made a speech, which was accompanied with such beauty of eloquence, and such grace of person and manner, that he received the thanks of that illustrious body; and nothing was talked of through the whole city but this rara in tcrris avis, this prodigy of nature. He held likewise disputations on the subjects of theology, philosophy, and mathematics, before the most eminent professors, and large multitudes of people. His reputation was so great, that the desire of seeing and hearing him brought together a vast concourse of persons from different quarters to Venice. It may be collected from Manutius, that the time in which Crichton exhibited these demonstrations of his abilities, was in the year 1580. During his residence at Venice, he fell into a bad state of health, which continued for the space of four months, and before he was perfectly recovered, he went, by the advice of his friends, to Padua, the university of which city was at that time in great reputation. The day after his arrival, there was a meeting of all the learned men of the place, at the house of Jacobus Aloysius Cornelius; when Crichton opened the assembly with an extemporary poem in praise of the city, the university, and the company who had honoured him with their presence. After this, he disputed for six hours with the most celebrated professors, on various subjects of learning; and he exposed, in particular, the errors of Aristotle, and his commentators, with so much solidity and acuteness, and, at the same time, with so much modesty, that he excited universal admiration. In conclusion, he delivered, extempore, an oration in praise of ignorance, which was conducted with such ingenuity and elegance, that his hearers were astonished. This display of Crichton’s talents was on the 14th of March, 1581. Soon after, he appointed another day for disputation at the palace of the bishop of Padua; not for the purpose of affording higher proofs of his abilities, for that could not possibly be done, but in compliance with the earnest solicitations of some persons, who were not present at the former assemhly. However, several circumstances occurred, which prevented this meeting from taking place. Such is the account of Manutius; but Imperialis relates, that he was informed by his father, who was present upon the occasion, that Crichton was opposed by Archangel us Mercenarius, a famous philosopher, and that he acquitted himself so well as to obtain the approbation of a very honourable company, and even of his antagonist himself. Amidst the discourses which were occasioned by our young Scotchman’s exploits, and the high applauses that were bestowed on his genius and attainments, there were some persons who endeavoured to detract from his merit. For ever, therefore, to confound these invidious impugners of his talents, he caused a paper to be fixed on the gates of St. John and St. Paul’s churches, in which he offered to prove before the university, that the errors of Aristotle, and of all his followers, were almost innumerable; and that the latter had failed, both in explaining their master’s meaning, and in treating on theological subjects. He promised likewise to refute the dreams of certain mathematical professors; to dispute in all the sciences and to answer to whatever should be proposed to him, or objected against him. All this he engaged to do, either in the common logical way, or by numbers and mathematical figures, or in an hundred sorts of verses, at the option of his opponents. According to Manutius, Crichton sustained this contest without fatigue, for three days; during which time he supported his credit, and maintained his propositions, with such spirit and energy, that, from an unusual concourse of people, he obtained acclamations and praises, than which none more magnificent were ever heard by men.
d fifteen characters in the representation of his own play. Among the rest, he acted the divine, the philosopher, the lawyer, the mathematician, the physician, and the soldier,
The next account we have of Crichton, and which appears to have been transmitted, through sir Thomas Urquharr, to later biographers, is of an extraordinary instance of bodily courage and skill. It is said, that at Mantua there was at this time a gladiator, who had foiled, in his travels, the most famous fencers in Europe, and had lately killed three persons who had entered the lists with him. The duke of Mantua was much grieved at having granted this man his protection, as he found it to be attended with such fatal consequences. Crichton, being informed of his highness’s concern, offered his service, not only to drive the murderer from Mantua, but from Italy, and to fight him for fifteen hundred pistoles. Though the duke was unwilling to expose such an accomplished gentleman to so great a hazard, yet, relying upon the report he had heard of his warlike achievements, he agreed to the proposal; and, the time and place being appointed, the whole court attended to behold the performance. At the beginning of the combat, Crichton stood only on his defence; while the Italian made his attack with such eagerness and fury, that, having over-acted himself, he began to grow weary. Our young Scotchman now seized the opportunity of attacking his antagonist in return; which he did with so much dexterity and vigour, that he ran him through the body in three different places, of which wounds he immediately died. The acclamations of the spectators were loud and extraordinary upon this occasion; and it was acknowledged by all of them, that they had never seen art grace nature, or nature second the precepts of art, in so lively a manner as they had beheld these two things accomplished on that day. To crown the glory of the action, Crichton bestowed the prize of his victory upon the widows of the three persons who had lost their lives in fighting with the gladiator. It is asserted, that, in consequence of this, and his other wonderful performances, the duke of Mantua made choice of him for preceptor to his son Vincentio di Gonzaga, who is represented as being of a riotous temper and a dissolute life. The appointment was highly pleasing to the court. Crichton, to testify his gratitude to his friends and benefactors, and to contribute to their diversion, framed, we are told, a comedy, wherein he exposed and ridiculed all the weaknesses and failures of the several employments in which men are engaged. This composition was regarded as one of the most ingenious satires that was ever made upon mankind. But the most astonishing part of the story is, that Crichton sustained fifteen characters in the representation of his own play. Among the rest, he acted the divine, the philosopher, the lawyer, the mathematician, the physician, and the soldier, with such inimitable grace, that every time he appeared upon the stage he seemed to be a different person . From being the principal actor in a comedy, Crichton soon became the subject of a dreadful tragedy. One night, during the time of carnival, as he was walking along the streets of Mantua, and playing upon his guitar, he was attacked by half a dozen people in masks. The assailants found that they had no ordinary person to deal with; for they were not able to maintain their ground against him. In the issue, the leader of the company, being disarmed, pulled off his mask, and begged his life, telling him that he was the prince his pupil. Crichton immediately fell on his knees, and expressed his concern for his mistake; alleging, that what he had done was only in his own defence, and that if Gonzaga had any design upon his life he might always be master of it. Then, taking his own sword by the point, he presented it to the prince, who immediately received it, and was so irritated by the affront which he thought he had sustained in being foiled with all "his attendants, that he instantly ran Crichton through the heart. Various have been the conjectures concerning the motives which could induce Vincentio di Gonzaga to be guilty of so ungenerous and brutal an action. Some have ascribed it to jealousy, asserting that he suspected Crichton to be more in favour than himself with a lady whom he passionately loved; and sir Thomas Urqnhart has told a story upon this head which is extravagant and ridiculous in the highest degree. Others, with greater probability, represent the whole transaction as the result of a drunken frolic; and it is uncertain, according to Imperiaiis, whether the meeting of the prince and Crichton was by accident or design. However, it is agreed on all hands, that Crichton lost his life in this rencontre. The time of his decease is said, by the generality of his biographers, to have been in the beginning-of July 1583; but lord Buchan, most likely in consequence of a more accurate immiry, fixes it to the same month in the preceding year. There is a difference likewise with regard to the period of life at which Crichton died. The common accounts declare that he was killed in the thirty-second year of his age; but Imperialis asserts that he was only in his twenty-second when that calamitous event took place; and this fact is confirmed by lord Buchan. Criehton’s tragical end excited a very great and general lamentation. If the foolish ravings of sir Thomas Urquhart are to be credited, the whole court of Mantua went three quarters of a year into mourning for him; the epitaphs and elegies that were composed upon his death, and stuck upon his hearse, would exceed, if collected, the bulk of Homer’s works; and, for a long time afterwards, his picture was to be seen in most of the bed-chambers and galleries of the Italian nobility, representing him on horseback, with a lance in one hand and a book in the other. From all this wonderful account we can only infer, with any degree of confidence, that Crichton was a youth of such lively parts as excited great present admiration, and high expectations with regard to his future attainments. He appears to have had a fine person, to have been adroit in his bodily exercises, to have possessed a peculiar facility in learning languages, to have enjoyed a remarkably quick and retentive memory, and to have excelled in a power of declamation, a fluency of speech, and a readiness of reply. His knowledge likewise was probably very uncommon for his years; and this, in conjunction with his other qualities, enabled him to shine in public disputation. But whether his knowledge were accurate or profound, may justly be questioned; and it may equally be doubted whether he would have arisen to any extraordinary degree of eminence in the literary world, which, however, his early and untimely death prevented from being brought to the test of experiment.
, an eminent philosopher and mathematician, descended from a noble family, was born at
, an eminent philosopher
and mathematician, descended from a noble family, was
born at Lausanne, April 13, 1663. His father was Abraham de Crousaz, colonel of a regiment of fusileers: in his
youth being of a very delicate habit, he was not too closely
confined to his studies, yet left school at the age of thirteen with the reputation of a good scholar. His father,
who intended him for the army, had him educated in the
branches of knowledge necessary for that profession; but
finding him averse to any pursuit unless that of literature, he
allowed him to follow his inclination. In his fifteenth year
he completed his course of philosophy, and distinguished
himself by his theses, but being dissatisfied with the philosophy then taught, he had recourse to the writings of
Des Cartes, which he studied with avidity, and applied at
the same time to mathematics, but scholastic theology had
no more charms for him than the philosophy he had been
taught. In his sixteenth year, however, he entered as a
student of divinity, attended the best professors, both at
Geneva and Lausanne, and read the opinions of other
eminent divines on the subjects most involved in controversy. In March 1682 he went to Lcyden, made himself
acquainted with the theological disputes, and endeavoured
to investigate how far they could be determined by the
sacred scriptures. Leaving Holland, he entered France,
became acquainted with those celebrated protestant divines Claude and Menard, at Charenton, and fathers
Malebranche and le Vassor at Paris, who in vain endeavoured to bring him over to the Roman catholic church,
which Vassor himself forsook some years after. On his
return to his native country, in J 684, Crousaz married the
daughter of John Lewis Loys, comptroller-general, and
soon after was ordained, and made honorary professor.
He officiated as pastor in the church of Lausanne for fourteen years. During this time, in 1691, he was appointed
to dispute for the professorship of Hebrew at Berne, which
he performed with great credit. In 1699 he was made
professor of Greek and philosophy, and although also nominated to the chair of divinity in 1700, he preferred that
of philosophy. In 1706 he was appointed rector of the
college, which office he held three years, and was again
appointed in 1722, but held it then only two years, as it
interfered too much with his literary engagements. It was
during this second rectorate, that contests arose at Lausanne respecting the obligation of signing the Consensus,
a formulary of faith and doctrine maintained in the protestant churches of Swisserland, an account of which may
be seen in “Memoires pour servir a l‘histoire des troubles
arrives en Suisse a I’occasion du Consensus,
” Amst. Systeme de reflexions qui peuvent coutribuer a la netteté et a Petude de
nos connoissances,
” Amst. 2 vols. 8vo, reprinted there in
1720, 3 vols. 12mo; in 1725, in 4 vols. and in 1741, in
6 vols. In 1724 he published an abridgment of it in Latin,
at Geneva, “Systema Logicæ, juxta principia ab autore
in Gallico opere posita.
” Some conversations on the subject of beauty in art, led him to an investigation of the
subject, and produced in 1715, his “Traité du Beau, ou
Ton montre en quoi consiste ce que l'on nomnie ainsi, par
des examples tirés de la plupart des arts et des sciences,
”
reprinted at Amst. 2 vols. 12mo. In 1718, he published
an ironical work, “Nouvelles maximes sur l'Education des
enfans,
” Amst. 8vo; but in Examen du traite de la Hberté
de penser,
” Amst. 8vo. In the same year he published
his first mathematical work, “Geometric des lignes et des
surfaces rectilignes et circulaires,
” Arnst. 2 vols. 8vo.
o be in the Vatican library; but he must be distinguished from Ctesibius of Chalcis, who was a cynic philosopher, of a sportive disposition and a cheerful temper, who had the
, of Alexandria, a famous mathematician
about 120 years B. C. was, it is reported, the first inventor
of the pump, which he discovered by accident. On lowering a mirror that was in his father’s shop, he observed
that the weight which helped it in moving upwards and
downwards, and which was inclosed in a cylinder, made a
noise, produced by the friction of the air violently forced
by the weight. He set about examining into the cause of
this sound, and thought it might be possible to avail himself of it in making an hydraulic organ, in which the air
and the water should form the sound; an undertaking
which he executed with success. Encouraged by this production, Ctesibius thought of using his mechanical skill in
measuring time. He constructed a clepsydra, or waterclock, formed with water, and regulated by cogged wheels;
the water by falling turned these wheels, which communicated their motion to a column on which were marked the
characters for distinguishing the months and the hours.
At the same time that the cogged wheels were put in motion, they raised a little statue, which with a wand pointed
to the months and hours marked upon the column. He
was also the author of “Geodesia, or the art of dividing
and measuring bodies,
” which is said to be in the Vatican
library; but he must be distinguished from Ctesibius of
Chalcis, who was a cynic philosopher, of a sportive disposition and a cheerful temper, who had the art of being
agreeable to the great, without submitting to the vile arts
of flattery, and made them hearken to truth, and gave
them a taste for virtue, under the name of amusement.
, a learned English divine and philosopher, was son of Dr. Ralph Cudworth, and born at Alley, in Somersetshire,
, a learned English divine and
philosopher, was son of Dr. Ralph Cudworth, and born
at Alley, in Somersetshire, of which place his father
was rector. His mother was of the family of Machell, and
had been nurse to prince Henry, eldest son of James I.
His father dying when he was only seven yeaVs of age,
and his mother marrying again, his education was superintended by his father-in-law, Dr. Stoughton, who was
very attentive to the promising genius of his scholar. In
1630, he was admitted pensioner of Emanuel college,
Cambridge; of which, after taking the degrees of B. A.
and M. A. he was chosen fellow, and became an eminent
tutor. Among his pupils, who were numerous, was Mr.
William Temple, afterwards the celebrated baronet, statesman, and writer. About 1641 he was presented to the
rectory of North Cadbury, in Somersetshire. In 1642 he
published “A discourse concerning the true notion of the
Lord’s Supper,
” printed at London, in 4to, with only the
initial letters of his name. In this he contends that the
Lord’s supper is not a sacrifice, but a feast upon a sacrifice; and endeavours to demonstrate, that “the Lord’s
supper in the Christian church, in reference to the true
sacrifice of Christ, is a parallel to the feasts upon sacrifices, both in the Jewish religion and heathenish superstition.
” Bochart, Spencer, Selden, and other eminent
writers, quote this discourse with great commendations,
but his opinions have been controverted by the majority
of divines. The same year likewise appeared his treatise
entitled “The Union of Christ and the Church, in a
shadow, by R. C.
” printed at London, in 4to.
rudition, excellently skilled in the learned languages and antiquity, a good mathematician, a subtle philosopher, and a profound metaphysician. The main design of his celebrated
Cudworth died at Cambridge, June 26, 1688, and was
interred in the chapel of Christ’s college. He was a man
of very extensive erudition, excellently skilled in the
learned languages and antiquity, a good mathematician, a
subtle philosopher, and a profound metaphysician. The
main design of his celebrated work, “The Intellectual
System,
” is to refute the principles of atheism, and in this
he has successfully employed a vast fund of learning and
reading. But his partiality for the Platonic philosophy, in
judging of which, after the example of his contemporaries,
he paid too much respect to the writings of the modern
Alexandrian Platonists, led him into frequent mistakes.
In physics he adopted the atomic system; but, abandoning
Democritus and Epicurus as the first patrons of impiety,
he added to the doctrine of atoms that of a certain middle
substance between matter and spirit, to which he gave the
appellation of plastic nature, which he supposed to be the
immediate instrument of the divine operation; and this
hypothesis gave rise to the controversy above mentioned
between Bayle and Le Clerc. Cudworth stands at the
head of those divines who, considering the belief in a triune God as a fundamental article of Christian belief, maintain that both the Platonic, and all the other Pagan trinities
are only corruptions and mutilations of certain primaeval
revelations and patriarchal traditions relative to the asserted
distinction in the divine nature; and he has very ably
discussed this important subject in his Intellectual System.
A great number of writers commend Cudworth’s piety
and modesty; and Burnet having observed, that Dr. Henry
More studied to consider religion as a seed of a deiform
nature, and in order to this, set young students much on
reading the ancient philosophers, chiefly Plato, Tully, and
Plotinus, and on considering the Christian religion as a
doctrine sent from God, both to elevate and sweeten human nature, tells us, that “Cudworth carried this on with
a great strength of genius, and a vast compass of learning;
and that he was a man of great conduct and prudence;
upon which his enemies did very falsely accuse him of craft
and dissimulation.
” He left several manuscripts which seem
to be a continuation of his “Intellectual System,
” of which
he had given the world only the first part. One of these
was published by Chandler, bishop of Durham, 1731, in
8vo, under this title, “A Treatise concerning eternal
and immutable Morality.
” This piece was levelled against
the writings of Hobbes and others, who revived the exploded opinions of Protagoras; taking away the essential and eternal differences of moral good and evil, of just
and unjust, and making them all arbitrary productions of
divine or human will. He left also several other Mss.
with the following titles“: 1. A discourse of moral good and
evil.
” 2. Another book of morality, wherein Hobbes’s philosophy is explained. 3. A discourse of liberty and necessity, in which the grounds of the atheistical philosophy
are confuted, and morality vindicated and explained. 4.
Another book “De libero arbitrio.
” 5. Upon Daniel’s
prophecy of the 70 weeks, wherein all the interpretations
of the Jews are considered and confuted, with several of
some learned Christians. 6. Of the verity of the Christian religion, against the Jews. 7. A discourse of the creation of the world, and immortality of the soul. 8. Hebrew
learning. 9. An explanation of Hobbes’s notion of God,
and of the extension of spirits. The history of these Mss.
is somewhat curious. Having been left to the care of his
daughter, lady Masham , they for a long time quietly reposed in the library at Oates, in Essex. But, about the
year 1762, when the late lord Masham married his second
lady, his lordship thought proper to remove a number of
volumes of ancient learning, which had been bequeathed
to the family by Mr. Locke, and the manuscripts of Dr.
Cudworih, to make room for books of polite amusement.
For this purpose, he sold either the whole, or a considerable part of them, to Mr. Robert Davis, then a bookseller
in Piccadilly. Mr. Davis being told, or having concluded,
that the manuscripts were the productions of Mr. Locke,
it became an object of consideration with him, how to convert them, as a tradesman, to the best advantage. They
contained, among other things, sundry notes on scripture.
About the same time, a number of manuscript scriptural
notes by Dr. Waterland came into the possession of the
booksellers. It was therefore projected, by the aid of such
celebrated names as Mr. Locke and Dr. Waterland, to
fabricate a new Bible with annotations. At a consultation,
however, it was suggested, that, though these names were
very important, it would be necessary, to the complete success of the design, to join with them some popular living
character. The unfortunate Dr. Dodd was then in the height
of his reputation as a preacher, and was fixed upon to carry
on the undertaking. This was the origin of Dr. Dodd’s
Bible, and part of the materials put into his hands the
doctor made use of in the “Christian Magazine.
” When
the manuscripts were returned to Mr. Davis, he carried
them down to Barnes in Surry, which was his country retirement, and threw them into a garret, where they lay
exposed to the dangers of such a situation. About the
beginning of the year 1777, a gentleman, who had a
veneration for the name of Mr. Locke, and was concerned
to hear that any of his writings were in danger of being
lost, went to Barnes, to see these manuscript*; and being
positively assured by Mr. Davis, that they were the real
compositions of that eminent man, he immediately purchased them fur forty guineas. He was, however, soon,
convinced, after an examination of them, that the authority
of the bookseller was fallacious, and having remonstrated
against the deception, the vender condescended to take
them again, upon being paid ten guineas for his disappointment in the negociation. In the investigation of the manuscripts, the gentleman having discovered, by many incontestable proofs, that they were the writings of Dr. Cudworth, he recommended them to the curators of the British
Museum, by whom they were purchased; and thus, at last,
after many perils and mutilations, they are safely lodged
in that noble repository.
ts and learning, particularly famous for his vast knowledge in law and divinity, and a great natural philosopher and geometrician. Nicholas V. made him a cardinal by the title
, a cardinal, so called from Cusa,
the place of his birth, was born in 1401. His parents were
mean and poor; and it was his own personal merit which
raised him to the height of dignity he afterwards attained.
He was a man of extraordinary parts and learning, particularly famous for his vast knowledge in law and divinity,
and a great natural philosopher and geometrician. Nicholas V. made him a cardinal by the title of St. Peter ad
viucula, in 1448; and two years after, bishop of Brixia.
In 1451 he was sent legate into Germany, to preach the
crusade, but not succeeding in this attempt, he performed
the more meritorious service of reforming some monasteries
which he visited, and of establishing some new rules relating to ecclesiastical discipline. He returned to Rome
under Calixtus III. and afterwards was made governor of it
by Pius II. during his absence at Mantua, where he was
chief concerter and manager of the war against the Turks.
He died at Todi, a city of Umbria, in 1464, aged sixtythree years. His body was interred at Rome; but his
heart, it is said, was carried to a church belonging to the
hospital of St. Nicholas, which he had founded near Cusa,
and where he collected a most noble and ample library of
Greek and Latin authors. He left many excellent works
behind him, which were printed in three volumes at Basil,
in 1565. The first volume contains all his metaphysical
tracts, in which he is very abstruse and profound; the
second, his controversial pieces, and others which relate
to the discipline of the church; the third, his mathematical, geographical, and astronomical works. It is said of
Cusa, that before he was made a cardinal, he had taken
the freedom to reprehend some errors and misdemeanours
in the pope; and there are some instances in his works,
where he has made no scruple to detect and expose the
lying sophistries and false traditions of his church. In his
piece entitled “Catholic Concord,
” he has acknowledged
the vanity and groundlessness of that famous donation of
Constantine the Great to Sylvester, bishop of Rome. He
gained considerable reputation by his “Cribratio Alcorani.
”
The Turks had taken Constantinople in 14-53, which
seems to have given occasion to his writing this book, by
way of antidote, as he proposed it, to the doctrines of the
Koran, which were now in so fair a way of being spread
through the western parts of the world. It appears by the
dedication, that it was not written till after the loss of that
city being inscribed to Pius II. who did not enter on
the papacy till the Turks had been about three years in.
possession of it. It is a very learned and judicious performance.
r, an eminent historian, was born in 1473, at Sweinfurt, in Franconia, and became distinguished as a philosopher, historian, orator, poet, and physician, although his historical
, whose German name was Speishammer, an eminent historian, was born in 1473, at
Sweinfurt, in Franconia, and became distinguished as a
philosopher, historian, orator, poet, and physician, although
his historical works only have survived. He was educated
at Vienna, where his studies were confined to medicine
and poetry, and soon became in high favour with the emperor Maximilian I. who made him his librarian, and afterwards employed him in various important negociations in
Hungary, Bohemia, and Poland, and for many years admitted him to his presence as a confidential adviser, and placed
him at the head of the senate of Vienna. When Cuspinian
meditated his historical writings, the emperor ordered the
libraries and archives to be thrown open to him. He died
in 1529. His biographer, Gerbelius, describes him as a
man of elegant person, address, and manners; and his
works attest his learning and diligence in historical research.
In this branch he wrote: 1. “De Cicsaribus et Imperatoribus Romanorum,
” Austria, sive Commentarius de rebus Austrice Marchionum, Ducum, &c.
” Basil, Commonefactio ad Leonem X. papam, ad Carolum V.
imperatorem, &c. de Constantinopoli capta a Turcis, &c.
”
Leipsic, Commentarius in Sexti Rufi libellum de regia, consulari, imperialique dignitate, &c.
”
Basil, De origine Turcorum,
” Antwerp, Panegyric! variorum Auctorum,
”
Vienna,
originally of Thessaly, the disciple of Demosthenes and minister of Pyrrhus, equally celebrated as a philosopher and as an orator, flourished in the 125th olympiad, about 280
, originally of Thessaly, the disciple of Demosthenes and minister of Pyrrhus, equally celebrated as
a philosopher and as an orator, flourished in the 125th
olympiad, about 280 B. C. Pyrrhus said of him, “that
he had taken more towns by his eloquence, than he had by
his arms.
” This prince sent him to Rome to solicit a
peace, which was nearly granted him, when Appius Claudius and Fabricius, who were not to moved by the flowers
of rhetoric, influenced the senate to adopt other measures.
Cyneas, being returned to the camp of Pyrrhus, described
Rome to him as a temple, the senate as an assembly of
kings, and the Roman people as a hydra, which recruited
its vigour as often as it was defeated. Pliny cites the memory of Cyneas as a prodigy, at least in remembering persons; for the day after his arrival at Rome, he saluted all
the senators and knights by their several names. He
abridged the book of Ericas the tactician, on the defence
of places, which Casaubon published with a Latin version,
in the Paris edition of Polybius, 1609, folio, and M. de
Beausobre translated it into French, with comments, 1757,
4to.
streets, and caused the mob to tear her limb from limb. Damascius, who wrote the life of Isidore the philosopher, charges Cyril himself with being the contriver of this horrid
, of Alexandria, another celebrated father of the church, succeeded his uncle Theophilus in the bishopric of that place in the year 412; and as the bishops of Alexandria had long acquired great authority and power in that city, Cyril took every opportunity to confirm and increase it. He was no sooner advanced to this see, than he drove the Novatians out of the city; and, as Dupin says, stripped Theopemptus their bishop of every thing he had. In the year 415 the Jews committed some insult upon the Christians of Alexandria, which so inflamed the zeal of Cyril that he put himself at the head of his people, demolished the synagogues of the Jews, drove them all out of the city, and suffered the Christians to pillage their effects. This, however, highly displeased Orestes, the governor of the town; who began to be sensible that the bishop’s authority, if not timely suppressed, might possibly be found too strong for that of the magistrate. Upon which a kind of war broke but between Orestes and the bishop, and each had his party the inhabitants were inclined to be seditious; many tumults were raised, and some battles fought in the very streets of Alexandria. One day, when Orestes was abroad in an open chariot, he found himself instantly surrounded with about 500 monks, who had left their monasteries to revenge the quarrel of their bishop. They pursued him fiercely, wounded him with stones, and had certainly killed him, if the people had not restrained their fury till his guards came up to his relief. Ammonius, one of these monks, was afterwards seized by the order of Orestes, and, being put upon the rack, died under the operation. Cyril, however, had him immediately canonized, and took every public opportunity of commending his zeal and constancy. About the same time there was at Alexandria a heathen philosophess, named Hypatia, whose fame and character were every where so celebrated, that people came from all parts to see and to consult her. Orestes saw her often, which made the Christians imagine that it was she who inspired the governor with such an aversion to their bishop. This suspicion wrought so strongly upon some of their zealots, that on a certain day they seized upon Hypatia as she was returning home, dragged her violently through the streets, and caused the mob to tear her limb from limb. Damascius, who wrote the life of Isidore the philosopher, charges Cyril himself with being the contriver of this horrid murder.
ll of this version. 9. The works of Plato, translated into French, witli notes, and the life of that philosopher, with an account of the principal doctrines of his philosophy,
In 1683 Dacier married mademoiselle le Fevre; and in
1685 abjured with his lady the protestant religion. His
marriage, which was styled “the union of Greek and Latin,
” added considerably to his felicity, and procured him
an able assistant in his studies and publications. In 1691
he was assisted by madame Dacier in a French translation
of the moral reflections of the emperor Marcus Antoninus,
with notes, in 2 vols. 12mo. In 1692 he published Aristotle’s Poetics, translated into French, with critical remarks, in 4to. This work was reprinted in Holland in
12mo; and some have considered it as Dacier’s masterpiece. In 1693 he published a French translation of the
Oedipus and Electra of Sophocles, in 12mo; but not with
the same success as the Poetics just mentioned. We have
already noticed six publications of Dacier: the rest shall
now follow in order; for the life of this learned man, like
that of most others, is little more than a history of his
works. He published, 7. Plutarch’s Lives, translated into
French, with notes, Paris, 1694, vol. I. 8vo. This essay,
which contains only five lives, is the beginning of a work,
which he afterwards finished. 8. The works of Hippocrates, translated into French, with notes, and compared
with the manuscripts in the king’s library, Paris, 1697,
2 vols. 12mo. The Journal des Sgavans speaks well of
this version. 9. The works of Plato, translated into French,
witli notes, and the life of that philosopher, with an account of the principal doctrines of his philosophy, 1699,
2 vols. 12mo. These are only some of Plato’s pieces.
10. The life of Pythagoras, his Symbols, and Golden Verses,
the life of Hierocles, and his Commentary upon the Golden
Verses, 1706, 2 vols. 12mo.
In 1695, Dacier had succeeded Felibien in the academy
of inscriptions, and Francis de Harlay, archbishop of Paris,
in the French academy. In 1701 a new regulation was
made in the academy of inscriptions, by which every member was obliged to undertake some useful work suitable to
his genius and course of studies: and, in conformity to
this order, Dacier undertook the above translation of the
life of Pythagoras, &c. 11. The manual of Epictetus,
with five treatises of Simplicius upon important subjects,
relating to morality and religion, translated into French,
with notes, 1715, 2 vols. 12mo. The authors of the “Europe Sgavante of Jan. 1718,
” having criticised the specimen he had given of his translation of Plutarch’s Lives, he
printed, 12. An Answer to them, and inserted it in the
Journal des Sçavans of the 25th of June and the llth of
July 1718. 13. Plutarch’s Lives of illustrious men, revised by the Mss. and translated into French, with notes
historical and critical, and the supplement of those comparisons which are lost. To which are added, those heads
which could be found, and a general index of matters contained in the work, Paris, 1721, 8 vols. 4to; Amsterdam,
1723, 9 vols. 8vo. This work was received with applause,
and supposed to be well executed; yet not so, say the authors of the Bibliotheque Franchise, as to make the world
at once forget the translation of Amyot, obsolete as it is.
Dacier published some other things of a lesser kind, as,
14. A Speech made in the French academy, on his admission. 15. Answers, which he made, as director of the
academy, to the speech of M. Cousin in 1697, and to that
of M. de Boze in 1715, both inserted in the collections of
the French academy. 16. A dissertation upon the origin
of Satire, inserted in the second volume of the memoirs of
the academy of Belles Lettres in 1717. 17. Notes upon
Longinus. Boileau, in the preface to his translation of
Longinus, styles these notes very learned and says, that
“the author of them is not only a man of very extensive
learning, and an excellent critic, but likewise a gentleman
of singular politeness; which is so much the more valuable,
as it seldom attends great learning.
” Boileau has added
them to his own notes upon Longinus; and they are
printed in all the editions of his works. Dacier wrote also
a commentary upon Theocritus, which he mentions in his
notes upon Horace, ode xxix; and a short treatise upon
religion, containing the reasons which brought him over to
the church of Rome: but these two works were never
printed.
s chronicis,” Lond. 1579, 8vo; and 2. An edition of the works of the two Senecas, the orator and the philosopher, with notes and various readings, Geneva, 1628, 2 vols. fol.
, a learned French physician
and indefatigable botanist, was born at Caen in 1513, studied
medicine and botany at Montpelier, xvas admitted doctor in
medicine in 1547, and died at Lyons, where he had long
practised physic, in 1538. He published several elaborate
translations, particularly of the fifteen books of Athenseus
into Latin, in 1552, in 2 vols. fol. illustrated with notes
and figures; and some of the works of Galen and Paul
Egineta into French. In 1556 he published a translation
of “Ccelius Aurelianus de Morbis acutis
” and in Chirurgie Franchise, avec plusieurs figures d'instrumens,
”
8vo, which has been several times reprinted. He principally followed the practice of Paree, from whose work he
borrowed the figures of the instruments; but he has added
a translation into French of the seventh book ol' Paree, with
annotations, and some curious cases occurring in his own
practice. He was also the editor of an edition of Pliny
with notes, published in 1537. His first work, according
to Ilaller, was an 8vo edition of Iluellius’s Commentary on
Dioscorides, which appeared at Lyons in 1552, enriched
by Dalechamp with thirty small figures of plants, at that
time but little known. But his principal performance in
this branch was an universal history of plants, in Latin,
with above two thousand five hundred wooden cuts, besides repetitions, published after his death in two folio volumes. The publisher, William Uouille, seems to take
upon himself the chief credit of collecting and arranging
the materials of this great work, though he allows that
Dalechamp laid its first foundations. Haller says the latter
was engaged in it for thirty years; his aim being to collect
together all the botanical knowledge of his predecessors,
and enrich it with his own discoveries. He employed John
Bauhin, then a young man, and resident at Lyons, to assist him; but Bauhin being obliged on account of his
religion to leave France for Switzerland, like many other
good and great men of that and the following century, the
work in question was undertaken by Des Moulins, and
soon afterwards Dalechamp died. It is often quoted by
the title of“Historia Lugdunensis,
” and hence the merits
of its original projector are overlooked, as well as the faults
arising from its mode of compilation, which are in many
instances so great as to render it useless. A French translation was published in 1615, and again in 1653. Besides
these Dalechamp published, 1. “Caelius Aurelianus de
morbis chronicis,
” Lond.
, a celebrated heathen philosopher and writer, of the stoic school as some say, of the peripatetic
, a celebrated heathen philosopher and writer, of the stoic school as some say, of the peripatetic according to others, was born at Damascus, and flourished about 540, when the Goths reigned in Italy. If great masters can make a great scholar or philosopher, Damascius had every advantage of this kind. Theon, we are told, was his preceptor in rhetoric; Isidorus in logic; Mavinus, the successor of Proclus in the school of Athens, in geometry and arithmetic; Zenodotus, the successor of Marinus, in philosophy ', and Ammonias in astronomy, and the doctrines of Plato. He wrote the life of his master Isidorus, and dedicated it to Theodora, a very learned and philosophic lady, who had been a pupil of Isidorus. In this Life, which was copiously written, Damascius frequently attacked the Christian religion; yet obliquely, it is said, and with some reserve and timidity: for Christianity was then too firmly established, and protected by its numbers, to endure any open attacks with impunity, especially in a work so remarkable for obscurity, fanaticism, and imposture. Of this Life, however, we have nothing remaining, but some extracts which Photius has preserved; who also acquaints us with another work of Damascius, of the philosophic or the theologic kind. This was divided into four books; 1. De admirandis operibus; 2. Admirandae narrationes de daemonibus; 3. De animarum apparitionibus post obitum admirandae narrationes. The title of the fourth has not been preserved. Damascius succeeded Theon in the rhetorical school, over which he presided nine years: and afterwards Isidorus in that of philosophy at Athens, in which situation it is supposed that he spent the latter part of his life.
highest degree that knowledge of the world and of man, which neither books nor genius ever gave the philosopher, while neglecting the commerce of his fellow creatures. Enjoying
, a French abbe,
and a man of family, was the son of Louis cle Courcillon,
lord oi' Dangeau, &c. by a daughter of the celebrated Plessis-Mornay. He was born in January 1643, and educated
in the protestant religion, which was that of his family, and
which he professed in 1667, when envoy extraordinary in
Poland but he was afterwards induced to become a Roman catholic, and entered into the church, in which he
held some benefices, although none of such importance as
might have been expected from his merits and family interest. In 1671 he purchased the office of reader to the
king, which he sold again in 1685. In 1680 the king
gave him the abbey of Fontaine-Daniel, and in 1710 that
of Clermont, and he was also prior of Gournay and St.
Arnoul. He devoted himself, however, principally to the
belles lettres, the study of which he endeavoured to facilitate by various new modes of instruction, some of which
were successful, and others rather whimsical. In the sme
way, by some new expedients, he endeavoured to increase
the knowledge of history, geography, heraldry, grammar,
&c. and his services were so highly esteemed, that in 1682
he was admitted into the French academy, and in 1698
into that of the Ilicovrati of Padua. His own house, indeed, was a species of academy, where men of taste and
learning were invited to assemble once a week for conversation. The abbe Dangeau was an accomplished scholar:
besides the sciences we have mentioned, he knew Greek,
Latin, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, German, &c. Being
admitted into the confidence of his sovereign, he took frequent opportunities to promote learning and learned men,
and along with his brother the marquis Dangeau established a school for the education of voung men of family,
the superintendance of which he took upon himself; but
this did not last above ten years, the wars having obliged
the king to withdraw the pecuniary assistance he had given^
a striking proof of the necessities to which Louis XIV. was
sometimes driven by his ambition. He died Jan. 1, 1723,
leaving the character of a man whose virtues were superior to
his knowledge, extensive us the latter was. “His humanity
towards the sons and daughters of misfortune was such,
(says his eulogist M. d'Alembert), that, with but a moderate fortune, he was lavish of his bounty towards the poor,
and added to his benefits the more uncommon benefit of
Concealing them. He possessed that prudent œconomy,
without which there can be no generosity; and which,
never dissipating for the sake of giving continually, is
always giving with propriety. His heart was formed for
friendship, and for that reason he was not careless in bestowing it; but when once it was obtained, it was settled
for ever. If he had any defect, it was perhaps too much
indulgence for the faults and weaknesses of mankind; a
defect, which by its scarceness is almost a virtue, and of
which few persons have to reproach themselves, even in
regard to their friends. He possessed in the highest degree that knowledge of the world and of man, which neither books nor genius ever gave the philosopher, while
neglecting the commerce of his fellow creatures. Enjoying the esteem and the confidence of all the great men in
the kingdom, no one had better advice to give in the most
important affairs. He kept inviolably the secrets of others
as well as his own. Yet his generous, delicate, and honest
soul disdained dissimulation, and his prudence was too enlightened to be mistaken for artifice. Easy and affable in
company, but preferring truth in all things, he never disputed except in its defence: accordingly the lively interest he shewed for truth on all such occasions gave him in
the eyes of the generality an air of obstinacy, which truth
is much less likely to find among mankind than a cold and
criminal indifference.
”
, the greatest philosopher that ever Armenia produced, flourished about the middle of the
, the greatest philosopher that ever Armenia produced, flourished about the middle of the fifth century, and acquired at Athens the knowledge of the language and the philosophy of the Greeks. He translated such of their books as he thought the most useful. Far from superstitiously following Plato and Aristotle, like our European doctors, he selected from both the one and the other what seemed just and judicious to him, at the same time detecting and refuting their errors. His writings were preserved in the French king’s library, and probably are now in the imperial. They are methodical and solid. His style is flowing, accurate, and clear.
, early in the last century, resided at Stapleton, and was a great scholar, and a searcher after the philosopher’s stone. It has been supposed, that he might be father to the
, a learned critic, especially in the Greek tongue, was born in 1708. A respectable family of the name of Dawes had long been situated at Stapleton, between Market-Bosworth and Hinckley in Leicestershire, and our critic was probably of the same family, but it does not appear, from the register of the parish, that he was born at that place. There was a Dr. Dawes, who, early in the last century, resided at Stapleton, and was a great scholar, and a searcher after the philosopher’s stone. It has been supposed, that he might be father to the subject of the present article; but of this fact no decisive evidence can be produced. All the traditions concerning Richard Dawes are, that the place of his birth was either MarketBosworth, or the vicinity of that town. Whoever his parents were, or whatever was their condition in life, it is probable that they perceived such marks of capacity in their son, as determined them to devote him to a literary profession; and accordingly he was put to the free grammar-school at Bosworth, where he had the happiness of receiving part of his education under the care of Mr. Anthony Blackwall. Here he laid the foundation of that critical knowledge of the Greek language which he afterwards displayed so conspicuously. In 1725, he was admitted a sizar of Emanuel college, in the university of Cambridge, where he proceeded bachelor of arts in 1729. On the 2d of October, 1731, he became a fellow of the college on the nomination of sir Wolston Dixie, bart. In 1733, he took the degree of master of arts. The next year he was a candidate for the place of esquire beadle of the university, but his application was not crowned with success. Whilst Mr. Dawes was at Cambridge, he distinguished himself by some peculiarities of conduct, which probably arose from a mixture of insanity in his constitution; and in his conversation he occasionally took such liberties on certain topics as gave great offence to those about him. Having indulged himself too much, at college, in an indolent sedentary way of life, he, at length, found it absolutely necessary to have recourse to some kind of exercise. In this case, being of a strong athletic frame of body, and not over-delicate in the choice of his company, he took to the practice of ringing; and, as such a genius could not stop at mediocrity, he quickly became the leader of the band, and carried the art to the highest perfection.
0l. to be excused from serving parish-offices. His daughter Sophia, married Henry Baker, the natural philosopher, who died in 1774.
De Foe died in April 1731, in the parish of St. Giles’s Cripplegate. He left a widow, who did not long survive him, and six sons and daughters. His son Daniel is said to have emigrated to Carolina, but had a daughter, Mary, who about 1745, boarded in a private family at Chelmsford, in Essex. She was married about 1749, to Mr. John Thome, a shop-keeper at Braintree, in the same county. She died a widow, about 1775, leaving a son (since dead) and two daughters. She was a zealous dissenter, and seemed to inherit her grandfather’s sarcastic spirit. A sister of her’s, the wife of Mr. Standerwick, haberdasher and milliner, in Cornhill, died in 1787, a widow, at Stoke Newington, where her grandfather, as already mentioned, had so long lived, and where, it may now be added, he paid in April 1721, 10l. to be excused from serving parish-offices. His daughter Sophia, married Henry Baker, the natural philosopher, who died in 1774.
ho seldom boasted of performing it: among the former it was more often threatened than executed. Our philosopher died in the beginning of 1797, in the seventy-first year of
At the commencement of the revolution, Deleyre proved
himself warmly attached to the popular side of the question: he was elected a member of the National
Convention and of the Committee of Public Instruction. In revolutionary politics he was a Girondist; and his natural
taciturnity prevented him from falling a sacrifice to the
tyranny of Robespierre. He made his will while in Italy,
in 1772. At this period he seems to have anticipated the
approaching misfortunes of his country: “France,
” says
he, in this curious paper, “the country in which I was
born, has, from the corruption of her manners, fallen under
the yoke of despotism. The nation is too blind or too indolent to desire or be able to free herself. The government is become odious, and will terminate in despotism.
”
He adds, that, in consequence hereof, he is tired of life,
and that, as he is uncertain whether he shall have patience
enough to wait for his decease, or courage sufficient to
hasten it, he deems it a duty to be prepared with a
testament, explicitly stating all his desires concerning himself and the little he has to bequeath. This sort of language was not uncommon to the Encyclopedists and their
immediate friends; but with all their vaunting, they appear to have had more attachment to life, or more dread
of dissolution, than the German sentimentalists. With the
latter, suicide was common, even among many who seldom
boasted of performing it: among the former it was more
often threatened than executed. Our philosopher died in
the beginning of 1797, in the seventy-first year of his age,
of a natural decay. The three chief works in which he
engaged during his life-time were, an “Analysis of the
Philosophy of Bacon,
” in whose general opinions he appears to have been profoundly versed a variety of articles
introduced into the body of the Encyclopedic and a
“General History of Voyages,
” a voluminous publication,
which extended to nineteen large octavos. He published
also “Le Genie de Montesquieu,
” 12mo, and “L'Esprit
de St. Evremont,
” 12mo. Upon his decease were discovered many inedited works, and among the rest a poetic
translation of Lucretius. Of such a translation, France,
as well as every other country in Europe, except Italy, is
much in want; but, from what we have seen of M. Deleyre’s
metrical ballads, we strongly doubt his capacity to do justice to the inimitable beauties of the Roman bard: several
of these ballads have, nevertheless, obtained the honour of
being set to music by his friend Jean-Jaques Rousseau.
It is more to the praise of Deleyre, that he was an enemy
to all persecution, and, when in the possession of power,
acted with kindness towards many who were of different
sentiments from his own, and by whom he had been been
undeservedly ill-treated.
which he laboured; for, in his mode of living, he could imitate the temperance and self-denial of a philosopher.” In 1807, an edition of his work on the Constitution was published,
By this, we regret to add, De Lolme was not much a
gainer. It was discouraged on its first appearance, and
although mentioned with high respect by some leading
men in parliament, nothing substantial was done for its
author. His private life, however, had many singularities,
and De Lolme was not a man to be provided for by casual
bounty, or casual patronage. He expected, and had reason to expect, some permanent reward that might have
led to independence. Disappointed in this, his pride of
spirit would not suffer him to solicit inferior rewards. For
some years, when inquiries were made by men of rank,
who probably meant to have assisted him, it was almost impossible to trace his lodgings, which he frequently changed,
and in some of which he passed by fictitious names. He
lived on little, and his appearance and personal habits
became slovenly. Before he left this country, we are told,
he received some aid from the Literary Fund; but how he
lived abroad, we have not heard. From personal knowled;. e we can subscribe to the conclusion of Dr. Coote’s
character of him “He had the art of pleasing in conversation, though the graces did not appear in his manners or
deportment. He had a turn for pleasantry and humour;
and has been compared to Burke for the variety of his
illusions, and the felicity of his illustrations. His general
temper has been praised; but his spirit was considered by
many as too high for his fortune; yet, in one respect, his
mind assimilated to the occasional penury under which he
laboured; for, in his mode of living, he could imitate the
temperance and self-denial of a philosopher.
” In 1807,
an edition of his work on the Constitution was published,
illustrated by notes, and a critical and biographical preface by Dr. Charles Coote. Of this last we have availed
ourselves in the present sketch. For an account of the
early neglect with which De Lolme was treated, the reader
may be referred to his own preface.
, a peripatetic philosopher, and an illustrious ornament of that school, lived in the time
, a peripatetic philosopher, and an illustrious ornament of that school, lived in
the time of Alexander the Great, and was a scholar of
Theophrastus. He is represented as a flowery, rather than
a persuasive speaker, and as one who aimed at grace rather
than manner. Cicero says he amused the Athenians rather
than warmed them; yet such was the influence of his
harangues, that at Athens he was almost absolute for ten
years. Three hundred and sixty statues were erected in
his honour; and not undeservedly, since he is said to have
augmented the revenues of it, as well as to have improved
and polished its buildings. But envy at length conspiring
against him, his statues were pulled down, and himself
threatened with death; but he escaped into Egypt, and
was protected by Ptolemy Soter. This king, it is said,
asked his advice concerning the succession of his children
to the throne, viz. whether he ought to prefer those he had
by Eurydice to Ptolemy Philadelphus, whom he had by
Berenice; and Demetrius advised him to leave his crown
to the former. This displeased Philadelphia so much,
that, his father being dead, he banished Demetrius, who,
unable to support the repeated misfortunes he had met
with, put an end to his life, by the bite of an asp. Demetrius composed more works in prose and verse, than any
other peripatetic of his time; and his writings consisted of
poetry, history, politics, rhetoric, harangues, and embassies. None of his works are extant for as to the piece
“De Interpretatione,
” which goes under his name, and
is usually printed with the “Rhetores Selecti,
” there are
several internal marks, which shew that it is probably of a
later date. He is supposed to be the same with him that
collected together 200,000 volumes into the library of
Ptolemy Philadelphus, who, to make it complete, caused
that translation of the Bible out of Hebrew into Greek to
be made, which is commonly called the Septuagint. And
if it should be objected, that Demetrius could not possibly be the manager of this affair, since he was banished by
Philadelphus as soon as he came to the crown, it has generally been thought sufficient to say, that these books were
collected, and this translation made, while Ptolemy Philadelphus reigned with his father Ptolemy Soter. But this
story is now generally discredited, and the Septuagint is
ascribed to the private labour of the Jews, who were at this
time resident in Egypt. When Demetrius was born, and
when he died, we know not; but his disgrace at Athens is
said to have happened about the year of Rome 436, that is,
somewhat about 300 years before Christ.
ter credit due to the tale, that Democritus spent his leisure hours in chemical researches after the philosopher’s stone, the dream of a later age; or to the story of his conversation
It is said, that, from this time, Democritus ppent his days and nights in caverns and sepulchres; and that in one of these gloomy retreats, whilst he sat by his midnight lamp busily engaged in writing, he was on a sudden visited by several young men, who, in order to terrify him, had clothed themselves in black garments, and put on masks, pretending to be ghosts; but that, upon their appearance, he coolly requested them not to play the fool, and went on with the studies in which they found him employed. Others relate, that Democritus, in order to be more perfectly master of his intellectual faculties, by means of a burning glass deprived himself of the organs of sight. But the former of these stories has the air of fable; and the latter is wholly incredible, since the writers who relate it affirm, that Democritus employed his leisure in writing books, and in dissecting the bodies of animals, neither of which could very well have been effected without eyes. Cicero, who was not destitute of credulity, mentions the story, but at the same time intimates his own doubts concerning its truth. Nor is greater credit due to the tale, that Democritus spent his leisure hours in chemical researches after the philosopher’s stone, the dream of a later age; or to the story of his conversation witli Hippocrates, grounded upon letters, which are said to have passed between that father of medicine and the people of Abdera, on the supposed madness of Democritus, but which are so evidently spurious, that it would require the credulity of the Abderites themselves to suppose them genuine. All that is probable concerning this conversation, so circumstantially and eloquently related in the epistles ascribed to Hippocrates, is, that Hippocrates, who was contemporary with Democritus, admired his extensive knowledge of nature, and reprobated the stupidity of the Abderites, who imputed his wonderful operations to a supernatural intercourse with daemons, or to madness. The only reasonable conclusion which can be drawn from these marvellous tales, is that Democritus was, what he is commonly represented to have been, a man of sublime genius and penetrating judgment, who, by a long course of study and observation, became an eminent master of speculative and physical science; the natural consequence of which was, that, like Roger Bacon in a later period, he astonished and imposed upon his ignorant and credulous countrymen. Petronius relates, that he was perfectly acquainted with the virtues of herbs, plants, and stones, and that he spent his life in making experiments upon natural bodies.
Democritus has been commonly known under the appellation of the Laughing Philosopher; and it is gravely related by Seneca, that he never appeared
Democritus has been commonly known under the appellation of the Laughing Philosopher; and it is gravely related by Seneca, that he never appeared in public, without expressing his contempt of the follies of mankind by laughter. But this account is wholly inconsistent with what has been related concerning his fondness for a life of gloomy solitude and profound contemplation; and with that strength and elevation of mind, which his philosophical researches must have required, and which are ascribed to him by the general voice of antiquity. Thus much, however, may be easily admitted, on the credit of yElian and Lucian, that a man so superior to the generality of his contemporaries, and whose lot it was to live among a race of men, the Abderites, who were stupid to a proverb, might frequently treat their follies with ridicule and contempt. Accordingly we find that, among his fellow-citizens, he obtained the appellation of yeAflwivof, or the derider.
from which it is the office of reason to draw it up. Concerning physics, it was the doctrine of this philosopher, that nothing can ever be produced from that which has no existence,
Brucker gives the following analysis of his doctrines: concerning truth Democritus taught, that there are two kinds of knowledge, one obscure, derived from the senses, and another genuine, obtained by the exercise of thought upon the nature of things. This latter mode of acquiring certain knowledge he confessed to be very difficult; and, therefore, he used to say, that truth lay in a deep well, from which it is the office of reason to draw it up. Concerning physics, it was the doctrine of this philosopher, that nothing can ever be produced from that which has no existence, and that any thing which exists can never be annihilated. Whatever exists must consequently owe its being to necessary and self-existent principles, of which he conceived there were two; viz. atoms, and a vacuum, both infinite, the former in number, the latter in magnitude. Atoms are solid, and the only beings; vacuum, or entire space, can neither be said to be existent nor non-existent, being neither corporeal nor incorporeal. Atoms have the property of figure, magnitude, motion, and weight, being heavy in proportion to their bulk. They are various in figure and in magnitude; and are perfectly solid, indivisible, and unalterable. These atoms have been eternally moving in infinite vacuum or space, in a direction perpetually deviating from a right line; and thus collisions are produced, which occasion innumerable combinations of particles, from which arises the various form of things that exist. These primary corpuscles are moved and united by that natural necessity, which is the only fate that creates and governs the world. The system of nature is one, consisting of parts, differing in their figure, order, and situation. The production of an organized body is occasioned by the suitable arrangement of atoms, adapted in their nature to form that body; if it be diversified, alteration takes place; if it be entirely destroyed, dissolution. The qualities of bodies are not essential to their nature, but the casual effect of arrangement; and this occasions the different impressions which they make upon the senses. In infinite space there are innumerable worlds, some similar, others dissimilar; but all subject to growth, decay, and destruction. The world has no animating principle, but all things are moved by the rapid agitation of atoms. The sun and moon are composed of light particles, revolving about a common centre. The heavenly bodies are arranged in the following order; first, the fixed stars, then, the planets, then the sun, then the moon: all move from east to west, and those which are nearest revolve with the least velocity; so that the sun, the inferior planets, and the moon, move more slowly than the rest.
ing atoms, is, that the latter conceived small particles endued with various qualities; whereas this philosopher conceived the qualities of bodies to be, as we have already
The fundamental difference between the doctrine of Democritus, and that of former philosophers, concerning atoms, is, that the latter conceived small particles endued with various qualities; whereas this philosopher conceived the qualities of bodies to be, as we have already said, the mere effect of arrangement. Democritus, in his whole system, pays no regard to an external efficient cause, but absurdly supposes, that the intrinsic necessity, which gives motion to atoms, is alone sufficient to account for the phaenomena of nature. Whatever he is said to have taught concerning nature, fate, or providence, he merely asserted, that the fire, which resulted from the combination of certain subtle atoms, and which has been called the soul of the world, is a mechanical agent in nature, causing by its rapid motion the changes which take place in the universe. Plutarch says, that Democritus considered the sun and moon as ignited plates of stone; but this is not consistent with his general system, and with his knowledge of nature. The belief of the materiality of the soul was the natural result of the atomic system; for if the soul be a mere composition of atoms, when these are dispersed, it must perish; As to the reviviscence of human bodies, he can only be supposed to mean, that the atoms composing any human soul, would, after their dispersion, coalesce again, in some distant period, and recover their former life. The term eiJaXov^ or image, seems to have had, in his use of it, two different significations: it denoted those images which he supposed to flow from external objects, and, striking upon the senses, excite ideas in the mind, and also, those divine beings that existed in the air, and which he called gods. Although Democritus rejected the notion of Deity, and allowed him no share in the creation or government of the world, he endeavoured to conceal his impiety, by admitting the popular belief of divinities inhabiting the aerial regions, and teaching that they make themselves visible to some favoured mortals, and enable them to predict future events.
, a Cynic philosopher, who flourished during the reign of Adrian, in the second century,
, a Cynic philosopher, who flourished
during the reign of Adrian, in the second century, was
a native of Cyprus, and descended from a family of wealth
and high rank; but preferring a life of philosophic study
to the employments which his birth and fortune might have
commanded, he removed to Athens while he was young,
and there spent the remainder of his days. In his manners
and habits, he was in some respects the imitator of Diogenes, and hence he obtained a rank among the Cynics,
though he never professed himself to be of any sect. From
them all he selected what was excellent, and most favourable to moral wisdom; and like Socrates, he endeavoured
to make philosophy not a speculative science, but the rule
of life and manners. He was virtuous without ostentation,
and was able to reprove vice without acrimony, and with
the happiest effect. So high was his reputation, that the
greatest deference was paid to his opinion in the assemblies of the Athenian people. After his death, which was
not till he had attained the age of an hundred, he was honoured with a public funeral, attended with a numerous
train of philosophers, and others who lamented the loss of
so estimable a character. Lucian, from whom alone we
have any account of Demonax, furnishes also the following
anecdotes. Soon after Demonax came to Athens, a public
charge was brought against him for neglecting to offer sacrifice to Minerva, and to be initiated into the Eleusinian
mysteries. Appearing before the assembly in a white garment, he pleaded that Minerva did not stand in need of
his offerings; and that he declined initiation into the
mysteries, because, if they were bad, he ought not to conceal
them; and if they were good, his love to mankind would
oblige him to disclose them: upon which he was acquitted.
One of his companions proposing to go to the temple of
Esculapius, to pray for the recovery of his son from sickness, Demonax said: “Do you suppose that Esculapius
cannot hear you as well from this place?
” Hearing two ignorant pretenders to philosophy conversing, and remarking
that the one asked foolish questions, and the other made replies which were nothing to the purpose, he said, “One
of these men is milking a he-goat, while the other is holding
a sieve under him.
” Advising a certain rhetorician, who
was a wretched declaimar, to perform frequent exercises,
the rhetorician answered, “I frequently practise by myself.
” “No wonder,
” replied Demonax, “that you are
so bad a speaker, when you practise before so foolish an
audience.
” Seeing a Spartan beating his servant unmercifully, he said to him, “Why do you thus put yourself
upon a level with your slave?
” When Demonax was informed that the Athenians had thoughts of erecting an
amphitheatre for gladiators, in imitation of the Corinthians,
he went into the assembly, and cried out, “Athenians,
before you make this resolution, go and pull down the
altar of mercy.
”
, an excellent philosopher and divine, was born at Stoughton near Worcester, Nov. 26, 1657;
, an excellent philosopher and
divine, was born at Stoughton near Worcester, Nov. 26,
1657; and educated in grammar-learning at Ulockley in.
that county. In May 1675 he was admitted of Trinity
college, Oxford and when he took his degree of B. A.
was already distinguished for his learning and exemplary
character. He was ordained deacon by Compton bishop
of London, in May 1681; priest by Ward bishop of Salisbury, in July 1682; and was the same month presented to
the vicarage of Wargrave in Berkshire. August 1689, he
was presented to the valuable rectory of Upminster in
Essex: which living, lying at a moderate distance from
London, afforded him an opportunity of conversing and
corresponding with the most eminent philosophers of the
nation. Here in a retirement suitable to his contemplative and philosophical temper, he applied himself with
great eagerness to the study of nature, and to mathematics
and experimental philosophy; in which he became so
eminent, that in 1702 he was chosen F. R. S. He proved
one of the most useful and industrious members of this
society, frequently publishing in the Philosophical Transactions curious observations and valuable pieces, as may
be seen by their Index. In his younger years he published
separately, “The artificial Clock-maker; or, a treatise of
watch and clock-work, shewing to the meanest capacities
the art of calculating numbers to all sorts of movements;
the way to alter clock-work; to make chimes, and set
them to musical notes; and to calculate and correct the
motion of pendulums. Also numbers for divers movements: with the ancient and modern history of clockwork; and many instruments, tables, and other matters,
never before published in any other book.
” The fourth
edition of this book, with large emendations, was published in 1734, 12mo. In 1711 and 1712 he preached “Sixteen Sermons
” at Boyle’s lectures; which, with suitable
alterations in the form, and notes, he published in 1713
under the title “Physico-theology; or, a demonstration of
the beine: and attributes of God from his works of creation,
” 8vo. In pursuance of the same design, he published,
in 1714, “Astro-theology or, a demonstrationof the being and attributes of God from a survey of the heavens,
”
illustrated with copper-plates, 8vo. These works, the
former especially, have been highly and justly valued,
translated into French and several other languages, and
have undergone several editions. In 1716 he was made a
canon of Windsor, being at that time chaplain to the prince
of Wales; and in 1730 received the degree of D. D. from
the university of Oxford by diploma, on account of his
learning, and the services he had done to religion by his
culture of natural knowledge “Ob libros,
” as the terms
of the diploma run, “ab ipso editos, quibus physicam &
mathesin auctiorem reddidit, & ad religionem veramque
fidem exornandam revocavit.
” When Eleazer Albin published his natural history of birds and English insects, in
4 vols. 4to, with many beautiful cut?, it was accompanied
with very curious notes and observations by our learned
author. He also revised the “Miscellanea Curiosa,
” published in three volumes, Christo-theology or, a demonstration of the divine authority of the Christian religion, being the substance of a
sermon preached at Bath, Nov. 2, 1729, and published at
the earnest request of the auditory, 1730,
” 8vo. The last
work of his own composition was “A Defence of the
Churches right in Leasehold Estates. In answer to a book
called ‘An Inquiry into the customary estates and TenantRights of those who hold lands of the Church and other
Foundations,’ published under the name of Everard Fleetwood, esq.
” Philosophical Experiments and observations of the late eminent
Dr. Robert Hooke, and other eminent virtuosos in his
time, 1726,
” 8vo; and he communicated to the royal society several pieces, which he received from his learned
correspondents.
, an eminent experimental philosopher, was born at Rochelle, in France, on the 12th of March 1683.
, an eminent experimental philosopher, was born at Rochelle, in France, on the 12th of March 1683. He was brought to England when about two years of age, by his father, the rev. Mr. John Desaguliers, who, being a French protestant, was obliged to quit his native country in consequence of the persecution which followed upon the revocation of the edict of Nantes, which took place in 1685. He was instructed in grammar learning by his father, and read the classics under him; after which he was sent to Christ Church college, Oxford, where he took the degree of B. A. and entered into deacon’s orders in 1710. The same year he read lectures in experimental philosophy at Hart-hall, whither he had removed from Christ Church, in the room of Mr. Keill (afterwards Dr. Keill) who at this time accompanied the Palatines to New England, in consequence of his being appointed their treasurer. In 1712 he married Miss Joanna Pudsey, daughter of William Pudsey, esq. and, on the third of May the same year, took the degree of M. A. The following year he removed to the metropolis, and settled in Channel-row, Westminster, where he continued his courses of experimental philosophy several years.
The merit of our experimental philosopher had now attracted the notice of the duke of Chandos, who. had
The merit of our experimental philosopher had now attracted the notice of the duke of Chandos, who. had before taken Dr. Keill under his patronage, and who became also a patron to Mr. Desaguliers, making him his chaplain, and presenting him, about 1714, to the living of Stanmore parva, or Whitchurch. In 1717 he went through a course of his lectures on experimental philosophy, before king George I. at Hampton Court; with which his majesty was so well pleased, that he intended to have conferred upon him the valuable living of MuchMunden, in Hertfordshire; but that benefice was obtained for another person by the earl of Sunderlancl, who prevailed with a friend to present him with a living in Norfolk, the revenue of which, however, amounted only to 70l. per annum. On the 16th of March 1718, he accumulated the degrees of bachelor and doctor of laws at Oxford. On the 30th of June 1720, he made an experiment before the royal society, to prove that bodies of the same bulk do not contain equal quantities of matter; and, therefore, that there is an interspersed vacuum. He likewise made some experiments before the society on the 30th of March 1721, relating to the resistance of fluids, an account of which was published in the Philosophical Transactions, No. 367. In 1728 he shewed before the royal society a machine for measuring any depth in the sea, with great expedition and certainty, which was invented by the rev. Mr. Stephen Hales (afterwards Dr. Hales) and himself; and of which an account was published in the Philosophical Transactions, No. 405. He continued, from time to time, to exhibit various philosophical experiments before the royal society, and for which he received a salary.
ct till that period.” Dr. Desaguliers, who is styled by Dr. Priestley “an indefatigable experimental philosopher,” died Feb. 29, 1744, at the Bedford coffee-honse, Covent Garden,
When Channel row, in which he had lived for some
years, was ordered to be taken down to make way for the
new bridge at Westminster, Dr. Desaguliers removed to
lodgings over the Great Piazza in Covent Garden, where
he carried on his lectures till his death. He is said to
have been repeatedly consulted by parliament, upon the
design of building that bridge; in the execution of which,
Mr. Charles Labelye, who had been many years his assistant, was appointed a supervisor. He likewise erected
a ventilator, at the desire of parliament, in a room over the
house of commons. In 1742 he published a “Dissertation on Electricity,
” by which he gained the prize of the
academy at Bourdeaux. “This prize,
” Dr. Priestley observes, “was a medal of the value of 300 livres, proposed,
at the request of monsieur Harpez de la Force, for the
best essay on electricity; and shews how much this
subject engaged the attention of philosophers at that time.
The dissertation is well drawn up, and comprizes all that
was known of the subject till that period.
” Dr. Desaguliers, who is styled by Dr. Priestley “an indefatigable
experimental philosopher,
” died Feb. 29, 1744, at the
Bedford coffee-honse, Covent Garden, where he had lodgings, and was buried March Cth, in the Savoy. He was
the first who introduced the reading of lectures in experimental philosophy at the metropolis; and was a member
of several foreign academies, and corresponding member
of the royal academy of sciences at Paris. His personal
figure was not very promising; for he was thick and short,
not well-shaped, his features irregular, and extremely nearsighted. In the former part of his life he lived very abstemiously; but in his latter years was censured for an
indulgence in eating to excess, both in the quantity and
quality of his diet. He translated into English, from the
Latin, Gravesande’s “Mathematical Elements of Natural
Philosophy.
” This work was published by his son J. T.
Desaguliers, in two volumes, 4to. He left two other sons:
Alexander, who was bred to the church, and had a living
in Norfolk, where he died in 1751; and another, named
Thomas, who became colonel of the royal regiment of artillery, and equerry to his present majesty, and rose to
the rank of major-general.
, a modern philosopher of high distinction, was born at La Haye in Tourain, France,
, a modern philosopher of high distinction, was born at La Haye in Tourain, France, April 1, 1596, of an ancient and noble family. Whilst yet a child, he discovered an eager curiosity to inquire into the nature and causes of things, which procured him the appellation of the young philosopher. At eight years of age he was committed to the care of Dinet, a learned Jesuit, under whom he made uncommon proficiency in learning. But an habit of close and deep reflection soon enabled him to discover defects in the books which he read, and in the instructions which he received, which led him to form the ambitious hope that he should, in some future time, carry science to greater perfection than it had ever yet reached. After spending five years in the diligent study of languages, and in reading the ancient poets, orators, and historians, he made himself well acquainted with the elements of mathematics, logic, and morals, as they had been hitherto taught. His earnest desire of attaining an accurate knowledge of every thing which became a subject of contemplation to his inquisitive mind, did not, however, in any of these branches of science meet with full satisfaction. Concerning logic, particularly, he complained, that after the most diligent examination he found the syllogistic forms, and almost every other precept of the art, more useful in enabling a man to communicate to others truths already known, or in qualifying him to discourse copiously upon subjects which he does not understand, than assisting him in the investigation of truths, of which he is ignorant. Hence he was led to frame for himself a brief system of rules or canons of reasoning, in which he followed the strict method of the geometricians, and he pursued the same plan with respect to morals. But after all his speculations, he was not able to attain the entire satisfaction which he so earnestly desired; and, at the close of eight years’ assiduous application in the Jesuits’ college at La Fleche, he returned to his parents, lamenting that he had derived no other benefit from his studies, than a fuller conviction that he, as yet, knew nothing with perfect clearness and certainty. Despairing of being able to discover truth in the paths of learning, he now bade adieu to books, and resolved henceforth to pursue no other knowledge than that which he could find ti'ithin himself, and in the great volume of nature.
l inquiry. Wherever he went he conversed with learned men, and rather appeared in the character of a philosopher than a soldier. At last he quitted the military profession,
In his seventeenth year, his father sent him to Paris, leaving him to his own discretion, which, however, was not at first to be trusted, as youthful vanity and the love of pleasure betrayed him into excesses that might have been fatal to his literary progress, had not some learned friends, to whom he was introduced, recalled his attention to mathematical studies, which he again prosecuted in a solitary retirement of two years. Still, however, dissatisfied with the result of his speculations, he entered as a volunteer in the Dutch army, in which he thought he would have opportunities of conversing with the world; but even here his natural propensity to study returned; and he engaged in mathematical disquisitions with an eminent master of that science at Breda, and wrote a philosophical dissertation, in which he attempted to prove that brutes are automata, or mere machines. From the Dutch army he went into the Bavarian service, and while in winter-quarters, being informed of the high pretensions of the Rosicrucians, he endeavoured to discover their mysteries; but finding this impossible, or rather that there was nothing to be discovered, he returned to the humble path of rational inquiry. Wherever he went he conversed with learned men, and rather appeared in the character of a philosopher than a soldier. At last he quitted the military profession, and after a tour through the northern parts of Germany, returned to his own country in 1622, with no other profit from his travels, as he himself confesses, than that they had freed him from many prejudices, and rendered his mind more fit for the reception of truth, an advantage of no small importance, if he could have availed himself of it.
tly desirous to become the father of a sect, and discovered more jealousy and ambition than became a philosopher.
Having employed a short time in these studies, Des
Cartes spent about two years in Italy, conversing with
eminent mathematicians and philosophers, and attending
to various objects of inquiry in natural history. He then,
returned into France; but his mind remaining in an un
settled and sceptical state, he found it impossible to pursue
any regular plan of life, till in 1629 he determined to
withdraw from his numerous connexions and engagements
in Paris, and retire into some foreign country, where he
might remain unknown, and have full leisure to complete
his great design of framing a new system of philosophy.
The country he chose for this purpose was Holland; and
he went thither with so much secrecy, that the place of
his retirement was for some time known only to his intimate friend, Marsenne, at Paris. He at first resided near
Amsterdam, but afterwards went into the more northern
provinces, and visited Deventer and Lewarden; he at lasc
fixed upon Egmond, in the province of Friesland, as the
place of his more stated residence.
In this retirement, Des Cartes employed himself in investigating a proof from reason, independent of revelation,
of those fundamental points in religion, the existence of
God, and the immortality of the soul. This he brought
forward in his “Meditationes philosophies de pnma philosophia.
” At the same time he pursued the study of
optics, cultivated medicine, anatomy, and chemistry, and
wrote an astronomical treatise on the system of the world;
but hearing of the fate of Galileo, he did not publish it.
His philosophical tenets were first introduced into the
schools at Deventer in 1633, by Henry Rener, professor
of philosophy, and an intimate friend of Gassendi. Not
long afterwards, when he published a specimen of his
philosophy in four treatises, the number of his admirers
soon increased at Leyden, Utrecht, and Amsterdam: but
some divines opposed his doctrines, from the dread of innovation, and even attempted to excite the civil magistrate
against Des Cartes. In England, however, he was more
successful, and sir Charles Cavendish, brother to the earl
of Newcastle, gave him an invitation to settle in England.
Charles I. also gave him reason to expect a liberal appointment; but the rebellion frustrated this design, and Des
Cartes remained in Holland. In his native country, his
doctrine was at first well received, but a strong party soon
rose against it among the Jesuits. Bourden, one of the
fraternity, attacked his dioptrics in the public schools,
and a violent contest was long kept up between the Jesuits
and Cartesians. In the course of the disputes which the
Cartesian philosophy occasioned, Des Cartes himself appeared earnestly desirous to become the father of a sect,
and discovered more jealousy and ambition than became a
philosopher.
ception; and the singular talents which he discovered, induced her earnestly to solicit this eminent philosopher to remain in her kingdom, and assist her in establishing an
During the course of Des Cartes’ residence in Holland,
he paid three visits to his native country; one in 1643,
when he published an abstract of his philosophy, under the
title of “Specimina Philosophies,
” the second and third,
in On the Passions
” with great
delight, and was earnestly desirous to be instructed by
him in the principles of his philosophy. Des Cartes, notwithstanding the difficulties which he apprehended from
the severity of the climate, was prevailed upon to accept
the invitation, and arrived at Stockholm in 1649. The
queen gave him a respectful reception; and the singular
talents which he discovered, induced her earnestly to
solicit this eminent philosopher to remain in her kingdom,
and assist her in establishing an academy of sciences. But
Des Cartes had not been more than four months in Sweden, when a cold which he caught in his early morning
visits to the queen, whom he instructed in philosophy,
brought on an inflammation of the lungs, which soon put a
period to his life. The queen is said to have lamented his
death with tears. His remains were interred, at the request
of the French ambassador, in the cemetery for foreigners,
and a long historical eulogium was inscribed upon his tomb.
Des Cartes died Feb. 11, 1650. His remains were afterwards, in 1656, carried from Sweden into France, and
interred with great pomp in the church of St. Genevieve
du Mont.
rrow, in his “Opuscula,” tells us, that he was undoubtedly a very good and ingenious man, and a real philosopher, and one who seems to have b fought those assistances to that
We shall now subjoin sme additional testimonies to his
character. M. Baillet, in his account of his life,c. highly
commends him for his contempt of wealth and fame, his
love of truth, his modesty, disinterestedness, moderation,
piety, and submission to the authority of the church. Dr.
Barrow, in his “Opuscula,
” tells us, that he was undoubtedly a very good and ingenious man, and a real philosopher, and one who seems to have b fought those assistances
to that part of philosophy which relates to matter and motion, which, perhaps, no other had done; that is, a great
skill in mathematics, a mind habituated both by nature and
custom to profound meditation, a judgment exempt from
all prejudices and popular errors, and furnished with a considerable number of certain and select experiments, a great
jtleal of leisure, entirely disengaged by his own choice from
the readme: of useless books, and the avocations of life, with
an incomparable acuteness of wit, and an excellent talent
of thinking clearly and distinctly, and expressing his,
thoughts with the utmost perspicuity. Dr. Halley (see Wotton’s Reflections upon Ancient and Modern Learning)
says, “As to dioptrics, though some of the ancients mention refraction as a natural effect of transparent media, yet
Des Cartes was the first who, in this age, has discovered
the laws of refraction, and brought dioptrics into a science.
”
Wotton (ubi supra) though he degrades him in comparison
with lord Bacon, whom he soon succeeded, and censures
him for too precipitately drawing conclusions without a
sufficient number of previous experiments, observes nevertheless, that “to a vast genius he joined an exquisite
skill in geometry, so that he wrought upon intelligible
principles in an intelligible manner, though he very often
failed in one part of his end, namely, a right explication
of the phenomena of nature; yet, by marrying geometry
and physics together, he put the world in hopes of a masculine offspring in process of time, though the first productions should prove abortive.
” Dr. Keil, in the introduction to his “Examination of Burnet’s Theory of the
Earth,
” animadverting on Wotton’s reflections, &c. tells
us, that Des Cartes was so far from applying geometry and
observations to natural philosophy, that his whole system
is but one continued blunder on account of his negligence
in that point; which he could easily prove by shewing,
that his theory of the vortices, upon which the whole system is grounded, is absolutely false; and that sir Isaac
Newton has shewn, that the periodical times of all bodies,
which swim in a vortex, must be directly as the squares of
their distances from the centre of the vortex. But it is
evident, from observations, that the planets, in turning
round the sun, observe quite another law; for the squares
of their periodical times are always as the cubes of their
distances; and, therefore, since they do not observe that
Jaw, which they necessarily must, if they swim in a vortex,
it is a demonstration that there are no vortices, in which
the planets are carried round the sun: with more to the
same purpose. Mr. Baker, considering the natural philosophy of Des Cartes, observes, that “though it would be
very unjust to charge Des Cartes with the denial of a God,
who is supposed by him to have created matter,and to
have impressed the first motion upon it, yet he is blameable,
that after the first motion is impressed, and the wheels set
a-going, he leaves his vast machine to the laws of mechanism, and supposes that all things may be thereby produced without any further extraordinary assistance from
the first impressor. The supposition is impious; and, as
he states it, destructive of itself; for, not to deny him his
laws of motion, most of which have been evidently shewn
to be false, and consequently so must all be that is built
upon them, his notion of matter is inconsistent with any
motion at all; for, as space and matter are with him the
same, upon this supposition there can be no motion in a
plenum.
” Dr. Keil condemns Des Cartes for encouraging
the presumptuous pride of the modern philosophers; who
think they understand all the works of nature, and are able
to give a good account of them. Mr. Leibnitz, whilst he
acknowledges that Des Cartes was a very learned man, and
had read more than his followers imagine, and that he was
one of those who has added most to the discoveries of their
predecessors, observes, that those who rest entirely in
him, are much mistaken in their conduct; and this, he
says, is true, even with regard to geometry itself. He also
remarks, that Des Cartes endeavoured to correct some
errors with regard to natural philosophy, but that his presumption and contemptuous manner of writing, together
with the obscurity of his style, and his confusion, and severe treatment of others, are very disagreeable. Rapin,
in his “Reflexions de Physique,
” after observing that Des
Cartes’ s principles of motion, figure, and extension, are
almost the very same with those of Democritus and Epicurus, tells us, that father Mersenne mentioned in an
assembly of learned men, that Des Cartes, who had gained
great reputation by his geometry, was preparing a system
of natural philosophy, in which he admitted a vacuum;
but the notion was ridiculed by Roberval and some others;
upon which Mersenne wrote to him, that a vacuum was
not then in fashion at Paris, which induced Des Cartes to
change his scheme, in complaisance to the natural philosophers whom he studied to please, and admit the plenum
of Leucippus; “so that,
” says father Rapin, “the exclusion of a vacuum became one of his principles, merely from
political considerations.
” Rapin produces no authority
for this story; and it should be recollected, that he was a
very zealous Aristotelian, extremely prejudiced against
any new systems of philosophy.
Des Cartes, it is said, imagined it possible to prolong
life very considerably beyond the common period, and
thought he had discovered the method of doing it. In
conversation with sir Kenelm Digby, Des Cartes assured
him that, having already considered that matter, he would
not venture to promise to render a man immortal; but that
he was very sure it was possible to lengthen out his life to
the period of the patriarchs. It seems evident to me, says
he, in a letter written to M. de Zuylichem from Egmond,
in 1638, when he had attained the age of forty-two years,
that if we only guarded against certain errors, which we
are accustomed to commit in the course of our diet, we
might, without any other invention, attain to an old age,
much longer and more happy than now we do. However,
twelve years after this declaration was made, our philosopher died. Des Cartes was never married, but had one
natural daughter, named Francina, who died at five years
of age. Of his works there have been several editions;
particularly a Latin edition, A rust. 1701—1715, 9 vols.
4to. That published at Paris comprehends 15 volumes in
12mo, and their contents are as follow; viz. “Lettres de
M. Des Cartes, ou Ton a joint le Latin de plusieurs lettres,
qui n‘avoient ete imprhnees qu’en Francois, aver une traduction Francois de celles, qui n‘avoient jusqu’a present
paru qu'en Latin,
” Les Meditations metaphysiques touchant la premiere philosophic,
” Discours de la methode, pour bien conJuire sa
raison, et chercher la verite dans les sciences. Plus la
dioptrique, les meteores, la mechanique, et la musique,
”
Les Principes de la Philosophic,
” Les Passions de l‘Ame. Le Monde, ou traite
de la lumiere. Edition augmented d’un discours sur le
mouvement local et sur la fie v re, sur* les principes du mema
auteur,
” L'Homme de Rene Des Cartes,
et la formation du fetus; avec les remarques de Louis de
la Forge,
”
, a disciple of Aristotle, was born at Messina in Sicily. He was a philosopher, historian, and mathematician, and composed a great many books
, a disciple of Aristotle, was born at
Messina in Sicily. He was a philosopher, historian, and
mathematician, and composed a great many books on various subjects, and in all sciences, which were much
esteemed. Cicero speaks frequently in the highest terms
both of the man and his works. Geography was one of
his principal studies; and we have a tieatise, or rather a
fragment of a treatise, of his still extant upon that subject. It was first published by Henry Stephens in 1589,
with a Latin version and notes; and afterwards by Hudson at Oxford in 1703, among the “Veteris geographiae
scriptures Graecos minores, &c.
” Pliny tells us that “Dicearchus, a man of extraordinary learning, had received a
commission from some princes to take the height of the
mountains, and found Pelion, the highest of them, to be
1250 paces perpendicular, from whence he concluded it
to bear no proportion which could affect the rotundity of
the globe.
” He published some good discourses upon politics and government; and the work he composed concerning the republic of Lacedaemon was thought so excellent, that it was read every year before the youth in
the assembly of the ephori. As a philosopher, his tenets
have little to recommend them* He held that there is no
such thing as mind, or soul, either in man or beast; that
the principle by which animals perceive and act, is equally
diffused throngh the body, is inseparable from it, and expires with it; that the human race always existed; that it
is impossible to foretel future events; and that the knowledge of them would be an infelicity.
, 12mo, of which the abbe des Fontaines speaks well, though it met with no great success. It was our philosopher’s fate to write a great deal, and not to leave a good book,
In the mean time, the “Encyclopedic,
” which had
partly procured its editor these foreign honours and remunerations, gave great offence at home. Certain positions
on government and on religion occasioned the impression
to be suspended in 1752. At that time there were no more
than two volumes of the dictionary published; and the
prohibition of the succeeding ones was only taken off at
the end of 1753. Five new volumes then successively appeared. But in 1757 a new storm arose, and the book
was suppressed. The remainder did not appear till about
ten years after; and then was only privately distributed.
Some copies were even seized, and the printers were imprisoned in the Bastille. To whatever cause all these
interruptions were imputable, Diderot did not suffer his
genius to be impeded by the difficulties that were thrown
in his way. Alternately serious and sportive, solid and
frivolous, he published at the very time he was working
on the Dictionary of Sciences, several productions which
could scarcely have been thought to proceed from an encyclopedical head. His “Bijoux indiscrets,
” 2 vols.
12mo, are of this number a disgusting work, even to
those young- people who are unhappily too eager after licentious romances. Even here a certain philosophical pedantry appears, in the very passages where it is most misplaced; and never is the author more aukvvard than when
he intends to display a graceful ease. The “Fils naturel,
”
and the “Pere de Famille,
” two comedies in prose, which
appeared in Theatre de M. Diderot,
” are dialogues containing
profound reflections and novel views of the dramatic art.
In his plays he has endeavoured to unite the characters of
Aristophanes and Plato; and in his reflections he sometimes displays the genius of Aristotle. This spirit of criticism is exhibited, but with too much licence, in two other
works, which made a great noise. The former appeared
in 1749, 12mo, under the title of “Letters on the blind,
for the use of those who sec.
” The free notions of the author
in this work cost him his liberty, and he underwent a six
months imprisonment atVincennes. Having naturally strong
passions and a haughty spirit, finding himself on].a sudden
deprived of liberty, and of all intercourse with human
beings, he had like to have lost his reason; and to prevent
this, his keepers were obliged to allow him to leave his
room, to take frequent walks, and to receive the visits of
a few literary men. J. J. Rousseau, at that time his friend,
went and administered consolation to him, which he ought
not to have forgot. The letter on the blind was followed
by another on the “deaf and dumb, for the use of those
who can hear and speak,
” 1751, 2 vols. 12mo. Under,
this title, the author delivered reflections on metaphysics,
on poetry, on eloquence, on music, &c. There are some
good things in this essay, mixed with others superficial
and absurd. Though he strives to be perspicuous, yet he
is not always understood, and indeed, of all “that he has
composed on abstract subjects, it has been said that he
presents a chaos on which the light shines only at intervals.
The other productions of Diderot betray the same defect
of clearness and precision, and the same uncouth emphasis
for which he has always been blamed. The principal of
them are: 1.
” Principles of Moral Philosophy,“1745,
12mo, of which the abbe des Fontaines speaks well, though
it met with no great success. It was our philosopher’s fate
to write a great deal, and not to leave a good book, or at
least a book well composed. 2.
” History of Greece,
translated from the English of Stanyan,“1743, 3 vols.
12mo, an indifferent translation of an indifferent book.
3.
” Pieces on several mathematical subjects,“1748, 8vo.
4.
” Reflections on the Interpretation of Nature,“1754,
12mo. This interpreter is very obscure. 5.
” The Code
of Nature,“1755, 12mo, which is certainly not the code
of Christianity. 6.
” The -Sixth Sense,“1752, 12mo.
7.
” Of Public Education,“one of that swarm of publicutio. produced by the appearance of Emilius, and the
abolition of the Jesuits but some of his ideas in this work
are very judicious, and would be highly useful in the execution. 8.
” Panegyric on Richardson,“full of nerve
and animation. 9.
” Life of Seneca.“This was his last
work; and', is one of those which may be perused with
most pleasu even while we cannot approve the judgments
be passes on beneca and other celebrated men.
The abb Barruel says that he was the author of
” Systeme de la Nature,“which is usually given to Robinet; and
it is certain that if he was not the author, he furnished
hints, and revised the whole. Naigeon, his friend and
disciple, collected and published his works in 15 vols. 8vo,
at Paris, 1797, containing some articles which we have
not noticed; and in 18 10 a small publication appeared, entitled
” Diderotiana."
, who once enjoyed the reputation of a philosopher, the eldest son of sir Everard Digby, was born at Gothurst in
, who once enjoyed the reputation of a philosopher, the eldest son of sir Everard Digby,
was born at Gothurst in Buckinghamshire, June 11, 1603.
At the time of his father’s death, he was with his mother at
Gothurst, being then in the third year of his age: but he
seems to have been taken early out of her hands, since it
is certain that he renounced the errors of popery very
young, and was carefully bred up in the protestant religion,
under the direction, as it is supposed, of archbishop Laud,
then dean of Gloucester. Some have said, that king James
restored his estate to him in his infancy; but this is an
error; for it was decided by law that the king had no right
to it. About 1618 he was admitted a gentleman-commoner of Gloucester-hall, now Worcester college, in Oxford; where he soon discovered such strength of natural
abilities, and such a spirit of penetration, that his tutor,
who was a man of parts and learning, used to compare him,
probably for the universality of his genius, to the celebrated Picus de Mirandula. After having continued at
Oxford between two and three years, and having raised
the highest expectations of future eminence, he made the
tour of France, Spain, and Italy, and returned to England
in 1623; in which year he was knighted by the king, to
whom he was presented at the lord Montague’s house at
Hinchinbroke, October 23. Soon after, he rendered himself remarkable by the application of a secret he met with
in his travels, which afterwards made so much noise in
the world under the title of the “Sympathetic Powder,
”
by which wounds were to be cured, although the patient
was out of sight, a piece of quackery scarcely credible,
yet it was practised by sir Kenelm, and his patient Howell,
the letter-writer, and believed by many at that time. The
virtues of this powder, as himself assures us, were thoroughly inquired into by king James, his son the prince of
Wales, the duke of Buckingham, with other persons of
the highest distinction, and all registered among the observations of the great chancellor Bacon, to be added by
way of appendix to his lordship’s Natural History; but
this is not strictly true; for lord Bacon never published
that Appendix, although he does give a story nearly as
absurd.
e is some reason for ascribing the original invention of this curve to Hippias of Elaea, an ingemous philosopher and geometer, contemporary with Socrates.
was an ancient geometrician, whom some authors have erroneously represented as a disciple of Pythagoras, but who, according to Proclus, lived in the time of Plato, about 360 B. C. and was a disciple of the latter in philosophy. He was chiefly distinguished for his knowledge of geometry, and was the brother of Menechmus, who amplified the theory of the conic sections. Dinostrates also is said to have made many geometrical discoveries; but he is particularly distinguished as the inventor of the quadratrix, by which the quadrature of the circle is effected, though isot geometrically, but only mechanically. Montucla, howev-. T, observes that there is some reason for ascribing the original invention of this curve to Hippias of Elaea, an ingemous philosopher and geometer, contemporary with Socrates.
curity. Besides his History, Suidas ascribes to him some other compositions; as, 1. “The Life of the Philosopher Arrianus.” 2. “The Actions of Trajan” and 3. certain “Itineraries.”
Dio obtained leave of the emperor Severus to retire to
Nicaea, where he spent the latter part of his life. He is
supposed to have been about seventy years old when he
died; although the year of his death is not certainly known.
His History was first printed at Paris, 1548, fol. by Robert
Stephens, with only the Greek; but has been reprinted
since with a Latin translation by Leunclavius, Hanov. 1592,
fol. The best edition, however, is that of Reimarus, Hamburgh, 1750, 2 vols. fol. which was begun by Fabricius.
Photius ranks the style of Dio Cassius amongst the most
elevated. Dio seems, he says, to have imitated Thucyclicles, whom he follows, especially in his narratives and
orations; but he has this advantage over him, that he cannot be reproached with obscurity. Besides his History,
Suidas ascribes to him some other compositions; as, 1.
“The Life of the Philosopher Arrianus.
” 2. “The Actions of Trajan
” and 3. certain “Itineraries.
” Raphael Volaterranus makes him also the author of three
books, entitled “De Principe,
” and some small treatises
of morality. His History, as abridged by Xiphilinus, was
translated into English by Manning, and published at
London, 1704, 2 vols. 8vo.
ty; which obliged him to leave Rome, and withdraw to Egypt. He then assumed the character of a stoic philosopher; embellishing, however, his philosophical discourses that treated
, the son of Pasicrates, was born
at Prusa in Bithynia. We have just seen that Dio Cassius had the name of Cocceius or Cocceianus, and according to Mr. Wakefield, Dio Chrysostom had the same name'
from his patron Cocceius; but as an entire century intervened between these two Dio’s, it is impossible that Cassius could have derived that name from the same cause.
It is more certain, however, that the subject of the present
article was called Chrysostom, or golden mouthed, from
the elegance and purity of his compositions. This name
has occasioned a frequent confusion of our Dio Chrysostom
with John Chrysostom, the Christian preacher, so denominated for the same solid and splendid excellencies of his
style. Dio Chrysostom, under Nero and Vespasian, maintained the profession of a sophist: and frequently inveighed, in a declamatory and luxuriant style, against the
most illustrious poets and philosophers of antiquity; which
obliged him to leave Rome, and withdraw to Egypt. He
then assumed the character of a stoic philosopher; embellishing, however, his philosophical discourses that treated
of moral topics, with the graces of eloquence. As his
character corresponded to his principles of virtue, he was
a bold censor of vice, and spared no individual on account
of his rank. By his freedom of speech he offended Domitian, and being obliged to become a voluntary exile irr
Thrace, he lived in great poverty, and supported himself
by private labour. After the death of this emperor, he
returned to Rome, and for some time remained concealed;
but when he found the soldiers inclined to sedition, he
brought to their recollection Dio the orator and philosopher, by haranguing them in a strain of manly eloquence,
which soon subdued the tumult. He was admitted into the
confidence of Nerva and Trajan, and distinguished by the
former with tokens of favour. He lived to old acre, but
the time of his death cannot be ascertained. His “Orations
” are still extant, from which we may infer that he
was a man of sound judgment and lively fancy, and that
he blended in his style the qualities of animation and sweetness. The first edition of his works was published at Milan, 1476, 4to. The principal subsequent editions are,
Venice, 15.51, 8vo; Paris, 1604, fol. and Paris, 1533, 4to,
In 1800 the late Rev. Gilbert Wakefield published “Select Essays of Dio Chrysostom, translated into English,
from the Greek, with notes critical and illustrative,
” 8vo,
a work, however,- rather calculated for political allusion,
to which the translator was unhappily addicted, than for
classical illustration.
, of Caria, a philosopher of the Megaric school, flourished about 2SO years B. C. and
, of Caria, a philosopher of the Megaric
school, flourished about 2SO years B. C. and was a famous
adept in the verbal quibbles so common at that time, and
which Aristotle called Kristic syllogisms. A dialectic
question was proposed to him in the presence of Ptolemy
Soter, at whose court he was, by Stilpo, another quibbler
like himself; and Diodorus acknowledging himself incapable of giving an immediate answer, requested time for
the solution; on which the king himself, we presume a
wit, ridiculed his want of ingenuity, and gave him the
surname of Chronus. Mortified at this defeat, he retired
from the court, wrote a book upon the question, and at
last, foolishly enough, died of vexation. He is said to
have invented the famous argument against motion: “if any
body be moved, it is either moved in the place where it is,
or in a place where it is not; but it is not moved in the
place where it is, for where it is, it remains; nor is it moved
in a place where it is not, for nothing can either act or suffer
where it is not; therefore there is no such thing as motion.
”
Diodorus, after the invention of this wonderful argument,
was very properly repaid for his ingenuity. Having had
the misfortune to dislocate his shoulder, the surgeon whom
he sent for to replace it, kept him for some time in torture,
whilst he proved to him, from his own method of reasoning,
that the bone could not have moved out of its place. Diodorus has been ranked among the atomic philosophers,
because he held the doctrine of small indivisible bodies,
infinite in number, but finite in magnitude; but it does
not appear that he conceived the idea which distinguishes
the atomic doctrine, as it was taught by Democritus and
others, that the first atoms are destitute of all properties
except extension and figures.
, a celebrated Cynic philosopher, was born in the third year of the ninety-first olympiad, or
, a celebrated Cynic philosopher, was born
in the third year of the ninety-first olympiad, or 413 B.C.
at Sinope, a city of Pont us. His father, who was a banker,
was convicted of debasing the public coin, and was obliged
to leave his country. This circumstance gave the sou
an opportunity of visiting Athens, where he offered himself as a pupil of Aniisthenes; but that philosopher happening to be in a peevish humour, refused to receive him.
Diogenes still importuning him for admission, Antistheues
lifted up his staff to drive him away; upon which Diogenes
said, “Beat me as you please; I will be your scholar.
”
Antisthenes, overcome by his perseverance, received him,
and afterwards made him his intimate companion and
friend. Diogenes perfectly adopted the principles and
character of his master, and renouncing every other object
of ambition, he determined to distinguish himself by his
contempt of riches and honours, and by his indignation
against luxury. He wore a coarse cloak; carried a wallet
and a staff; made the porticoes and other public places
his habitation; and depended upon casual contributions
for his daily bread. A friend, whom he had desired to
procure him a cell, not executing his order so soon as he
expected, he took up his abode in a tub, or large open
vessel, in the Metro urn. It is probable, however, Brucker
thinks, that this was only a temporary expression of indignation and contempt, and that he did not make a tub
the settled place of residence, although it is mentioned
by Juvenal and Seneca. Whether true or not, there is
no doubt of his practising rigid abstinence,and depending
upon casual charity nor is it less certain that he reproved
the luxurious manners of the Athenians with great freedom; and yet his reproofs, though very pungent, manifested so much ingenuity, as to excite even the admiration
of those against whom they were directed. He uniformly
inculcated patience of labour and pain, frugality, temperance, and an entire contempt of pleasure; and whether praised or blamed, appeared equally indifferent, and
preserved on all occasions a perfect self-command.
expressed his surprise at this circumstance. Wishing to gratify his curiosity by the sight of such a philosopher as Diogenes, he visited the Craneum, where he found the philosopher
Diogenes, in his old age, is said to have sailed to the
island of Ægina; and having met with pirates, he was
carried into Crete, and exposed to public sale. Being asked
what he could do? he replied, “I can govern men, and
therefore sell me to one who wants a master:
” Xeniades, a
wealthy Corinthian, being struck by this singular reply,
purchased him; upon which Diogenes told him, “I shall
be more useful to you as your physician, than as your
slave.
” Upon their arrival at Corinth, Xeniades gave him
his liberty, and committed to his direction the education
of his children, and the management of his domestic concerns. Xeniades had so much reason to be satisfied with
his judgment and fidelity, that he used to say the gods
had sent a good genius to his house. He accustomed his
pupils to the discipline of the Cynic sect, and took greater
pains to inure them to habits of self-command, than to
instruct them in the elements of science. However, he
was not negligent in teaching them lessons of moral wisdom, which he inculcated by sententious maxims; and he
allowed them the moderate use of athletic exercises and
hunting. During his residence at Corinth, he frequently
attended the assemblies of the people at the Crancum, a
place in its vicinity; and at the Isthmian games, where he
appeared under the character of a censor, severely lashing
the follies of the times, and inculcating rigid lessons of
sobriety and virtue. At one of these assemblies the conference between Alexander the Great and Diogenes is
said to have happened. Plutarch relates the story thus:
Alexander received the congratulations of all ranks on his
being appointed, after the death of his father, to the command of the Grecian army in their projected expedition
against the Persians. Diogenes was absent on this occasion, and Alexander expressed his surprise at this circumstance. Wishing to gratify his curiosity by the sight of
such a philosopher as Diogenes, he visited the Craneum,
where he found the philosopher sitting in his tub in th
sun. The king came up to him in the crowd, and said,
“I am Alexander the Great;
” to which Diogenes replied,
in a surly tone, “and I am Diogenes the Cynic.
” Alexander, requesting to know if he could render him any service, received for answer, “Yes,
” says he, “do not stand
between me and the sun.
” Alexander surprised at the
magnanimity of this reply, said to his friends, “If I were
not Alexander, I would be Diogenes.
” There are several
circumstances in this narrative which suggest some doubts
as to its truth yet, from the character of Diogenes, it is
not very improbable.
wise men of his age. If we can pay any credit to the representation of the ancients, Diogenes was a philosopher of a penetrating genius, not unacquainted with learning, and
Some writers assert, that after the death of Antisthenes, Diogenes passed his summers in Corinth, and his winters in Athens, for which there seems to be no better foundation than for the whole detail of small anecdotes and jests which have been ascribed to him, and which are entirely contrary to the general scope of his philosophy, and to that authority and respect which he enjoyed with the wise men of his age. If we can pay any credit to the representation of the ancients, Diogenes was a philosopher of a penetrating genius, not unacquainted with learning, and deeply read in the knowledge of mankind. He moreover possessed a firm and lofty mind, superior to the injuries of fortune, hardy in suffering, and incapable of fear. Contented with a little, and possessing within himself treasures, sufficient for his own happiness, he despised the luxuries of the age. From an earnest desire to correct and improve the public manners, he censured reigning follies and vices with a steady confidence which sometimes degenerated into severity. He spared neither the rich nor the powerful; and even ventured to ridicule the religious superstitions of the age. This freedom gave great offence to multitudes, who could not endure such harsh and reproachful lectures from the mouth of a mendicant philosopher. The consequence was, that he suffered much obloquy, and was made the subject of ludicrous and disgraceful calumny. It is wholly incredible, that a man universally celebrated for his sobriety, contempt of pleasure, and indignation against vice, should have been guilty of the grossest indecencies. Brucker has amply refuted the story of his amour with Lais, the celebrated courtesan, by proving that at the time this intrigue is said to have taken place, Lais must have been eighty years old, and Diogenes seventy. Of philosophical pride, however, it is less easy to acquit him; and it was probably to his haughty temper, his coarse invectives, and scurrilous replies, that he owed the hostility which broke out in misrepresentations of his real character. Various accounts are given, concerning the time and manner of his death. It seems most probable that he died at Corinth, of mere decay, in the ninetieth year of his age, and in the hundred and fourteenth olympiad. His friends contended for the honour of defraying the expences of his funeral but the magistrates of Athens settled the dispute, by ordering him an honourable interment at the public expence. A column of Parian marble, terminated by the figure of a dog, was raised over his tomb; and his friends erected many brazen statues from respect to his memory.
he ridicule of his audience, spat upon him, and otherwise contumeliously treated him, upon which the philosopher observed with meekness, “I am not angry, but I am doubtful whether
, called the Babylonian, from his birthplace, Seleucia, near Babylon, flourished in the second
century B. C. He was the disciple of Chrysippus, and
the successor of Zeno of Tarsus, where he taught the
principles of his sect with unwearied diligence, and a high
reputation. He was the author of several works on divination, the laws, learning, &c. which have been quoted
with respect by Cicero and others. He is said to have
lived to the age of eighty-eight years, and philosophized
to the last. That he was highly esteemed by his contemporaries, is evident from his being appointed in conjunction with Carneades, the head of the academies, and Critolaus, the chief of the peripatetic school, to the embassy
to Home and as a proof how well his practice conformed
to his principles, we are told, that when he was once discoursing against anger, an insolent young man, with the
hope of exposing him to the ridicule of his audience, spat
upon him, and otherwise contumeliously treated him,
upon which the philosopher observed with meekness, “I
am not angry, but I am doubtful whether I ought not to
be so.
”
e whole circle of polite literature and science, being a grammarian, rhetorician, orator, historian, philosopher, editor, translator, and commentator; and as a poet, he wrote
, a most laborious Italian writer, was
born at Venice in 1508. His family was one of the most
ancient in the republic, but reduced in circumstances.
Lewis remained the whole of his life in his native city,
occupied in his numerous literary undertakings, which
procured him some personal esteem, but little reputation
or wealth. Perhaps his best employment was that of cor-,
rector of the press to the celebrated printer Gabriel Giolito, whose editions are so much admired for the beauties
of type and paper, and yet with the advantage of Dolce’s
attention, are not so correct as could be wished. As an
original author, Dolce embraced the whole circle of polite
literature and science, being a grammarian, rhetorician,
orator, historian, philosopher, editor, translator, and commentator; and as a poet, he wrote tragedies, comedies,
epics, lyrics, and satires. All that can be called events
in his life, were some literary squabbles, particularly with
Ruscelli, who was likewise a corrector of Giolito’s press.
He died of a dropsical complaint in 1569, according to
Apostolo Zeno, and, according to Tiraboschi, in 1566.
Baillet, unlike most critics, says he was one of the best
writers of his age. His style is flowing, pure, and elegant;
but he was forced by hunger to spin out his works, and to
neglect that frequent revisal which is so necessary to the
finishing of a piece. Of his numerous works, a list of
which may be seen in Niceron, or Moreri, the following
are in some reputation: 1. “Dialogo della pittura, intitolato I'Aretino,
” Venice, Cinque priini canti del Sacripante,
” Vinegia^
Primaleone,
” Achilles; 1 *
and
” Jineas,“1570, 4to. 5.
” La prima imprese del
conte Orlando," 1572, 4to. 6. Poems in different collections, among others in that of Berni. And the Lives of
Charles V. and Ferdinand the First.
as continued, and still flourishes, under the management of Mr. Peter Dollond, well known as an able philosopher and artist, and Mr. George Huggins, his nephew, who, upon the
In the beginning of 1761, Mr. Dollond was elected F. R. S. and appointed optician to his majesty, but did not live to enjoy these honours long; for on Nov. 30, in the same year, as he was reading a new publication of M. Clairaut, on the theory of the moon, and on which he had been intently engaged for several hours, he was seized with apoplexy, which rendered him immediately speechless, and occasioned his death in a few hours afterwards. His family, at his death, consisted of three daughters and two sons, Peter and John, who, possessing their father’s abilities, carried on the optical business in partnership, until the death of John, when it was continued, and still flourishes, under the management of Mr. Peter Dollond, well known as an able philosopher and artist, and Mr. George Huggins, his nephew, who, upon the king’s permission, has taken the name of Dollond.
and which is entitled “De Radiis Visus & Lucis in Vitris perspectives et Iride Tractatus.” Our great philosopher complimented the author of this tract so far as to declare,
Besides his work, “De Republica Ecclesiastica,
” 3 vols.
fol. he was author of a work in optics, which obtained the
applause of the illustrious sir I. Newton, and which is entitled “De Radiis Visus & Lucis in Vitris perspectives et
Iride Tractatus.
” Our great philosopher complimented
the author of this tract so far as to declare, that he was the
first person who had explained the phenomena of the colours of the rainbow. He wrote also, 1. “Dominis suae
profectionis a Venetiis consilium exponit,
” London, Predica
fatta, la prima Domenica dell' Avvento 1617, in Londra
nella Capella delta delli Mercian,
” Lond. Sui
Retiitus in Anglia consiliura exponit,
” Rome, 1623, 4to, and
in English the same year. 4. “De pace regionis, Epistola
ad Josephum Hallum,
” History of the Council of
Trent,
” the manuscript of which he procured for archbishop Abbot.
cy, became, through the great care of his father, not only a good linguist and poet, but also a good philosopher and mathematician. To all this he afterwards added an exquisite
He left four sons behind him; the eldest of whom, Janus
Dousa, would, if he had lived, have been a more extraordinary man than his father. Joseph Scaliger calls him the
ornament of the world; and says, that in the flower of his
age he had reached the same maturity of wisdom and erudition, as others might expect to attain after a life spent
in study. Grotius also assures us, that his poems exceeded those of his father; whom he assisted in composing
the Annals of Holland. He was born in 1572; and, before he was well out of infancy, became, through the
great care of his father, not only a good linguist and poet,
but also a good philosopher and mathematician. To all
this he afterwards added an exquisite knowledge of the
civil law and of history. Besides a great many poems,
which he composed in a very tender age, we have his notes
and observations upon several Latin poets. Those upon
Plautus were the product of his sixteenth year; and he
was not above nineteen when he published his book “De
Rebus Ccelestibus,
” and his “Echo, sive Lusus imaginis
jocose.
” His commentaries upon Catullus, Tibullus, and
Propertius, were published the same year. His extraordinary fame and merit caused him to be made preceptor to
the prince of Orange, and afterwards first librarian of the
university of Leyden. He died at the Hague, in his return from Germany in 1597, when he had not quite completed his 26th year.
, philosopher and alchymist, who was born in 1572, at Aicmaer, in Holland,
, philosopher and alchymist, who
was born in 1572, at Aicmaer, in Holland, and died at
London, in 1634 at the age of sixty-two, possessed a
singular aptitude in the invention of machines; although
we cannot give credit to all that is related of the sagacity
of this philosopher. We are told that he made certain
machines which produced rain, hail, and lightning, as
naturally as if these effects proceeded from the sky. By
other machines he produced a degree of cold equal to that
of winter; of which he made an experiment, as it is pretended, in Westminster-hall, at the instance of the king
of England; and that the cold was so great as to be insupportable. He constructed a glass, which attracted the
light of a candle placed at the other end of the hall, and
which gave light sufficient for reading by it with great
ease. Drebel has left some philosophical works; the principal of which is entitled: “De natura elementorum,
”
Hamburgh,
With these helps Stephen grew something of a poet, and something of a philosopher. He had from his infancy a cast in his mind towards poetry,
With these helps Stephen grew something of a poet, and something of a philosopher. He had from his infancy a cast in his mind towards poetry, as appeared from several little circumstances; but what gave him a higher taste of it than he had been used to, was Milton’s Paradise Lost. This he read over twice or thrice with a dictionary before he could understand the language of it thoroughly; and this, with a sort of English grammar he had, is said to have been of the greatest use to him. It was his friend that helped him to the Spectators; which, as he himself owned, improved his understanding more than any thing. The pieces of poetry scattered in those papers helped on his natural bent that way; and made him willing to try whether he could not do something like them. He sometimes turned his own thoughts into verse, while he was at wo;k and at la>-t bo;,an to venture those thoughts a little upon paper. The thing took air; and Stephen, who had before the name of a scholar among the country people, was said now to be able to write verses too. This was mentioned accidentally, about 1729, before a gentleman of Oxford, who sent for Stephen and, after some talk with him, desired him to write him a letter in verse. He did so; and that letter is the epistle which stands the last in his poems, though the first whole copy of verses that ever he wrote.
that have been bestowed upon Duns Scotus by his followers. They tell us that “He was so consummate a philosopher, that he could have been the inventor of philosophy, if it had
It may not be unamusing to recite an example of the
extravagant praises that have been bestowed upon Duns
Scotus by his followers. They tell us that “He was so
consummate a philosopher, that he could have been the
inventor of philosophy, if it had not before existed. His
knowledge of all the mysteries of religion was so profound
and perfect, that it was rather intuitive certainty than belief. He described the divine nature as if he had seen
God; the attributes of celestial spirits, as if he had been
an angel; the felicities of a future state, as if he had enjoyed them; and the ways of providence, as if he had
penetrated into all its secrets. He wrote so many books,
that one man is hardly able to read them; and no one man
is able to understand them. He would have written more,
if he had composed with less care and accuracy. Such was
our immortal Scotus, the most ingenious, acute, and subtile, of the sons of men.
” His portraits at Windsor and
Oxford have been generally considered as ideal.
, six hundred treatises in prose and verse, by which he appears to have been, with equal facility, a philosopher, physician, poet, civilian, divine, humourist, &c. To this work
, bookseller and miscellaneous writer,
was born at Graff bam, in Huntingdonshire, the 14th of May,
1659; the son of John Dunton, fellow of Trinity-college,
Cambridge, and rector of Graft ham, whose works he published in 8vo, embellished with very curious engravings.
Dunton was in business upwards of twenty years, during
which time he traded considerably in the Stationers’ company; but, about the beginning of the last century, he
failed, and commenced author; and in 1701, was amanuensis to the editor of a periodical paper called the “Post
Angel.
” He soon after set up as a writer for the entertainment of the public; and projected and carried on, with
the assistance of others, the “Athenian Mercury,
” or a
scheme to answer a series of questions monthly, the querist
remaining concealed. This work was continued to about
20 volumes; and afterwards reprinted by Bell, under the
title of the “Athenian Oracle,
” 4 vols. 8vo. It forms a
strange jumble of knowledge and ignorance, sense and
nonsense, curiosity and impertinence. In 1710 he published his “Athenianism,
” or the projects of Mr. John
Dunton, author of the “Essay on the hazard of a deathbed repentance.
” This contains, amidst a prodigious variety of matter, six hundred treatises in prose and verse,
by which he appears to have been, with equal facility, a
philosopher, physician, poet, civilian, divine, humourist,
&c. To this work he has prefixed his portrait, engraved
by M. Vander Gucht; and in a preface, which breathes all
the pride of self-consequence, informs his readers he does
not write to flatter, or for hire. As a specimen of this
miscellaneous farrago, the reader may take the following
heads of subjects: 1. The Funeral of Mankind, a paradox,
proving we are all dead and buried. 2. The spiritual
hedge-hog; or, a new and surprising thought. 3. The
double life, or a new way to redeem time, by living over
to-morrow before it comes. 4. Dunton preaching to himself; or every man his own parson. 5. His creed, or the
religion of a bookseller, in imitation of Brown’s Religio
Medici, which h.is some humour and merit. This he dedicated to the Stationers’ company. As a satirist, he
appears to most advantage in his poems entitled the “Beggar
mounted
” the “Dissenting Doctors;
” “Parnassus hoa!
”
or frolics in verse “Dunton’s shadow,
” or the character
of a summer friend but in all his writings he is exceedingly prolix and tedious, and sometimes obscure. His
“Case is altered, or Dunton’s remarriage to his own wife,
”
has some singular notions, but very little merit in the composition. For further particulars of this heterogeneous genius,
see “Dunton’s Life and Errors,
” a work now grown somewhat scarce, or, what will perhaps be more satisfactory, the
account of him in our authority. Dunton died in 1733.
rapports avec J. J.Rousseau,” 1798, 8vo, in which there are some curious particulars of the Genevan philosopher. From the Memoirs of the National Institute we learn that when
, a French writer of distinguished
taste and talents, was born at Chartres, Dec. 28, 1728, of
a family which made a considerable figure in the profession
of the law. He appears to have first served in the army
under the marechal Richelieu, and was noted for his courage. On his return to Paris, by the advice of the learned
professor Guerin, he devoted his time to literature, and
was in 1776 admitted a member of the academy of inscriptions. On the breaking out of the revolution, although
chosen into the convention, he was too moderate for the
times, and was imprisoned, and probably would have ended
his days on the scaffold, had not Marat obtained his pardon
by representing him as an old dotard, from whom nothing
was to be feared. In 1797 he was chosen a member of
the council of ancients, and on that occasion delivered a
long speech against the plan of a national lottery. He
died March 16, 1799. His principal works are, 1. A
French translation of Juvenal, by far the best that ever
appeared in that language, and which he enriched with
many valuable notes. It was first published in 1770, 8vo,
in a very correct and elegant manner, and was reprinted
in 1796. 2. “De la passion du Jeu,
” Sur la suppression
des Jeux de Hazard,
” probably a repetition of what he had
advanced before. 3. “Eloge de l'abbe Blanches,
” prefixed to his works. 4. “Memoire sur les Satiriques Latins,
”
in the 43d vol. of the Memoirs of the academy of inscriptions. 5. “Voyage a Barrege et dans les hautes Pyrenees,
”
Mes rapports avec J. J.Rousseau,
”
at Geneva, in 1768, and evinced the serious attention which he had bestowed on the opinions of that philosopher, and his extensive correspondence at this time with many of
With this gentleman he left London in October of that
year, and when Mr. M‘Kenzie returned to England in 1760,
Mr. Dutens filled the honourable situation of charg6 des
affaires at Turin till May 1762, when he rejoined Mr.
M’Kenzie at London, and assisted him as one of the members of lord Bute’s administration. Before this administration closed he obtained a handsome pension; and shortly
after was invited to resume his situation as charge des affaires at Turin, a place to which he manifested an evident
partiality. He continued two years at Turin, and at his
leisure hours planned an edition of Leibnitz’s works, which
was published in six vols. 4to, at Geneva, in 1768, and
evinced the serious attention which he had bestowed on
the opinions of that philosopher, and his extensive correspondence at this time with many of the most learned men
in Europe. At Turin also he displayed a very intimate
acquaintance with the philosophy, arts, &c. of ancient and
modern times, by his “Recherches sur l'Origine des Deeouvertes,
” &c. a work in which he endeavours to prove
that our most celebrated philosophers have been indebted
to the ancients for the greatest part of their knowledge.
This was published at Paris, 1766, 2 vols. 8vo, and afterwards translated into English and published at London.
Although it cannot be said that Mr. Dutens has accomplished his full intention in this work, many of his positions
being rather the whims and caprices of a lively writer, in
support of a pre-conceived theory, yet he has at least
proved that much of his own time had been devoted to the
inquiry, and that his range of reading had been very extensive.
e he remained two years. He became an excellent classical scholar, a great mathematician and natural philosopher, was well versed iti the Hebrew, and a master of the Latin,
, a man of great learning, and the friend
and associate of the literati of the last age, was born about
1725, and educated at Northampton, under Dr. Doddridge,
and for some time had the additional benefit of being instructed by the learned Dr. John Ward, professor of rhetoric in Gresham -college. He afterwards studied under professor Hutcheson at Glasgow, and to complete his education,
his father, an eminent jeweller in London, sent him, by the
advice of Dr. Chandler, to Leyden, where he remained two
years. He became an excellent classical scholar, a great
mathematician and natural philosopher, was well versed iti
the Hebrew, and a master of the Latin, Italian, and French
languages. Added to these endowments, he was of a
temper so mild, and in his conversation so modest and unassuming, that he gained the attention and affection of all
around him. In all questions of science, Dr. Johnson
looked up to him; and in his life of Dr. Watts (where he calls him “the late learned Mr. Dyer
”) has cited an observation of his, that Watts had confounded the idea of
space with that of empty space, and did not consider, that
though space might be without matter, yet matter, being
extended, could not be without space.
er to transport them to America, the banks of the Missisippi standing in need of population; and our philosopher narrowly escaped a western voyage.
In July 1718, he embarked for England, and soon after his arrival, retired to his native place, where he spent the winter. But being desirous of visiting France, he went thither in 1719, and after viewing the curiosities of Paris, took a lodging in a village situated in the great park of Versailles. His view was to enlarge his knowledge of natural history, but, to his great mortification, there was not at that time a living creature in the menagerie. As the court, during the king’s minority, did not reside at Versailles, the famous collection of animals had been so totally neglected, that they were all either dead or dispersed. To relieve his disappointment, Mr. Edwards amused himself in surveying the several churches and religious houses, and especially the statues and pictures in the public buildings. While he resided in France, he made two journeys of a hundred miles each. The first was to Chalons in Champagne, in May 1720; the second was on foot, to Orleans and Blois. This was performed in a disguised habit that he might avoid being robbed, but the scheme happened to be peculiarly hazardous; for an edict had recently been issued to secure vagrants, in order to transport them to America, the banks of the Missisippi standing in need of population; and our philosopher narrowly escaped a western voyage.
terwards, about 1536, to the emperor Charles V. Sir Thomas was an excellent grammarian, rhetorician, philosopher, physician, cosmographer, and historian; and no less distinguished
, a gentleman of eminent learning in the reign of king Henry Vlil. and author of several
works, was son of sir Richard Eiyot, of the county of
Suffolk, and educated in academical learning at St. Mary’s
hall in Oxford, where he made a considerable progress in
logic and philosophy. After some time spent at the university, he travelled into foreign countries, and upon his
return was introduced to the court of kiiag Henry, who,
being a great patron of learned men, conferred on him the
honour of knighthood, and employed him in several embassies, particularly to Rome in 1532, about the affair of
the divorce of queen Catharine, and afterwards, about
1536, to the emperor Charles V. Sir Thomas was an excellent grammarian, rhetorician, philosopher, physician,
cosmographer, and historian; and no less distinguished
for his candour, and the innocence and integrity of his life.
He was courted and celebrated by all the learned men of
his time, particularly the famous antiquary Leland, who
addressed a copy of Latin verses to him in his “Encomia
illustrium virorum.
” A similitude of manners, and sameness of studies, recommended him to the intimacy and
friendship of sir Thomas More. He died in 1546, and
was buried the 25th of March, in the church of Carleton,
in Cambridgeshire, of which county he had been sheriff.
His widow afterwards was married to sir James Dyer.
, an eminent philosopher, poet, orator, historian, and physician, was of Agrigentum,
, an eminent philosopher, poet, orator, historian, and physician, was of Agrigentum, in Sicily, and flourished about the eighty-fourth olympiad, or B. C. 44-4. He appears from his doctrine to have been of the Italic school; but under what master he studied philosophy is uncertain. After the death of his father Meto, who was a wealthy citizen of Agrigentum, he acquired great weight among his fellow-citizens, by espousing the popular party, and favouring democratic measures. He employed a large share of his paternal estate in giving dowries to young women, and marrying them to men of superior rank. His consequence in the state became at length so great, that he ventured to assume several of the distinctions of royalty, particularly a purple robe, a golden girdle, a Delphic crown, and a train of attendants; always retaining a grave and commanding aspect. He was a determined enemy to tyranny, and is said to have employed his influence in establishing and defending the rights of his countrymen.
the tragedian was another person; Suidas, upon some unknown authority, calls him the grandson of the philosopher. Georgias Leontinus, a celebrated orator, was his pupil; whence
The skill which Empedocles possessed in medicine and
natural philosophy enabled him to perform many wonders,
which he passed upon the superstitious and credulous multitude for miracles. He pretended to drive away noxious
winds from his country, and hereby put a stop to epidemical diseases. He is said to have checked, by the power
of music, the madness of a young man, who was threatening his enemy with instant death; to have cured Pantha,
a woman of Agrigentum, whom all the physicians had declared incurable; to have restored a woman to life, who
had lain breathless for thirty days; and to have done many
other things equally astonishing, after the manner of Pythagoras: on account of which he was an object of universal admiration, so that when he came to the Olympic
games, the eyes of all the people were fixed upon him.
Besides medical skill, Empedocles possessed poetical talents. The fragments of his verses, which are dispersed
through various ancient writers, have been in part collected
by Henry Stephens, in the “Poesis philosophica,
” The
Golden Verses of Pythagoras.
” He is said also to have
been a dramatic poet; but Empedocles the tragedian was
another person; Suidas, upon some unknown authority,
calls him the grandson of the philosopher. Georgias Leontinus, a celebrated orator, was his pupil; whence it may
seem reasonable to infer, that he was an eminent master of
the art of eloquence. The particulars of his death are
variously related. Some report, that during the night,
after a sacred festival, he was conveyed away towards the
heavens, amidst the splendour of celestial light; others
that he threw himself into the burning crater of Mount
Etna. Much reliance cannot be placed on either of these
stories. There is more probability that towards the close
of his life he went into Greece, and died there, at what
time is uncertain. Aristotle says he died at sixty years of
age. The substance of his philosophy, according to Brucker, is this: It is impossible to judge of truth by the
senses without the assistance of reason; which is. led, by
the intervention of the senses, to the contemplation of the
real nature, and immutable essences, of things. The first
principles of nature are of two kinds, active and passive
the active is unity, or God the passive, matter. The
active principle is a subtle, ethereal fire, intelligent and
divine, which gives being to all things, and animates all
things, and into which all things will be at last resolved.
Many daemons, portions of the divine nature, wander
through the region of the air, and administer human affairs. Man, and also all brute animals, are allied to the
divinity; and it is therefore unlawful to kill or eat animals.
The world is one whole, circumscribed by the revolution
of the sun, and surrounded, not by a vacuum, but by a.
mass of inactive matter. The first material principles of
the four elements are similar atoms, indefinitely small, and
of a round form. Matter, thus divided into corpuscles,
possessed the primary qualities of friendship and discord,
by means of which, upon the first agitation of the original
chaotic mass, homogeneous parts were united, and heterogeneous separated, and the four elements composed, of
which all bodies are generated. The motion of the corpuscles, which excites the qualities of friendship and discord, is produced by the energy of intellectual fire, or
divine mind; all motion, and consequently all life and
being, must therefore be ascribed to God. The first principles of the elements are eternal nothing can begin to
exist, or be annihilated but all the varieties of nature are
produced by combination or separation. In the formation
of the world, ether was first secreted from chaos, then fire,
then earth; by the agitation of which were produced water
and air. The heavens are a solid body of air, crystallized
by fire. The stars are bodies composed of fire, they are
fixed in the crystal of heaven; but the planets wander
freely beneath it. The sun is a fiery mass, larger than the
moon, which is in the form of a hollow plate, and twice as
far from the sun as from the earth. The soul of man consists of two parts, the sensitive, produced from the same
principles with the elements; and the rational, which is a
daemon sprung from the divine soul of the world, and sent
down into the body as a punishment for its crimes in a former state, where it transmigrates till it is sufficiently purified to return to God.
d one of the greatest captains of antiquity, studied philosophy and music under Lysis, a Pythagorean philosopher, and was accomplished in every exercise of mind and body. Epaminondas
, a famous Theban, son of Polymnus,
and one of the greatest captains of antiquity, studied philosophy and music under Lysis, a Pythagorean philosopher,
and was accomplished in every exercise of mind and body.
Epaminondas first bore arms among the Lacedemonians,
saved the life of Pelopidas their general, who had received
seven or eight wounds in battle, and formed a strict
friendship with him, which lasted through life. Pelopidas, by
his advice, delivered the city of Thebes from the yoke of
the Lacedemonians, who had gained possession of Cadmea,
which occasioned a bloody War between the two nations.
Eparninondas was appointed general of the Thebans,
gained the celebrated buttle of Leuctru, 371 B. C. in which
Cleombrotus, a valiant king of Sparta, was killed; ravaged
the enemy’s country, and caused the city of Messene to be
rebuilt and peopled. The command of the army being
afterwards given to another, because Epaminondas had
kept the troops in the field four months beyond the time
ordered by the people, he served as a common soldier, and
signalized himself by so many noble actions, that the Thebans, ashamed of having deprived him of the command,
restored all his authority, that he might conduct the war
in Thessaly, where his arms were ever victorious. A war
breaking out between the people of Elea and those of
Mantinea, the Thebans defended the former, and Epaminoudas attempted to surprise Sparta and Mantinea; but,
failing in his enterprize, he engaged the enemy 363 B. C.
and was mortally wounded by a spear, the head of which
remained in the wound. Finding that he must die if it
was extracted, he would not let it be done, but continued
to give his orders. When told that the enemy were defeated entirely, he said, “I have lived long enough, since
I die unconquered;
” then, tearing out the weapon, expired, being about forty-eight years of age. One of his
friends condoling with him, a few moments before, that he
left no children, having never been married, “You are
mistaken,
” replied Epaminondas “1 leave two daughters;
the Victory at Leuctra, and that at Mantinea.
” This
great man was not only illustrious for his military talents,
but for his goodness, affability, frugality, equity, and moderation and was a tender, generous friend.
, an ancient poet and philosopher, who flourished about 440 B. C. was born in the island of Coos,
, an ancient poet and philosopher, who flourished about 440 B. C. was born in the island of Coos, and was carried, as we are told by Laertius, into Sicily when he was but three months old, first to Megara, and afterwards to Syracuse; which may well enough justify Horace and others in calling him. a Sicilian. He had the honour of being taught by Pythagoras himself; and he and Phormus are said to have invented comedy in Syracuse, though others have pretended to that discovery. He wrote fifty -five, or, according to others, thirty-five plays; but his vrorks have been so long lost, that even their character is scarcely on record. Horace only has preserved the memory of one of his excellences, by commending Plautus for imitaiing it; and that is, the keeping his subject always in view, and following the intrigue very closely: Plautus ad cxemplum Siculi properare Epicharmi, &c.
, an illustrious philosopher of the school of the stoics, flourished in the first century
, an illustrious philosopher of the school
of the stoics, flourished in the first century of the Christian
aera. He was born at Hieropolis in Phrygia, and was sold
as a slave to Epaphroditus, one of Nero’s domestics. He
was lame, which has been variously accounted for. Suidas
says, that he lost one of his legs when he was young, in
consequence of a defluxion; Simplicius asserts that he was
born lame; Celsus relates, that when his master, in order
to torture him, bended his leg, Epictetus, without discovering any sign of fear, said to him, “You will break it:
”
and when his tormentor had broken the leg, he only said,
“Did I not tell you, you would break it?
” Others ascribe
his lameness to the heavy chains with which his master
loaded him. Having, at length, by some means obtained
his freedom, he retired to a small hut within the city of
Rome, where, with the bare necessaries of life, he devoted
himself to the study of philosophy, and passed his days
entirely alone, till his humanity led him to take the charge
of a child, whom a friend of his had through poverty exposed, and to provide it with a nurse. Having furnished
himself, by diligent study, with the principles of the stoic
philosophy, and been instructed in rhetoric by Rufus, who
was himself a bold and successlul corrector of public manners, Epictetus, notwithstanding his poverty, became a
popular moral preceptor, for which he was admirably qualified, being an acute and judicious observer of manners.
His eloquence was simple, majestic, nervous, and penetrating, and while his doctrine inculcated the purest morals,
his life was an admirable pattern of sobriety, magnanimity,
and the most rigid virtue.
, under a mock decree of the senate, from Italy, which he bore with a degree of firmness worthy of a philosopher who called himself a citizen of the world, and could boast that,
Neither his humble station, nor his singular merit, could
however screen Epictetus from the tyranny of the monster
Domitian. With the rest of the philosophers he was banished, under a mock decree of the senate, from Italy,
which he bore with a degree of firmness worthy of a philosopher who called himself a citizen of the world, and
could boast that, wherever he went, he carried his best treasures along with him. At Nicopolis, the place which he
chose for his residence, he prosecuted his design of correcting viceand folly by the precepts of philosophy.
Wherever he could obtain an auditory, he discoursed concerning the true way of attaining contentment and happiness; and the wisdom and eloquence of his discourses were
so highly admired, that it became a common practice
among the more studious of his - hearers to commit them to
writing. It is probable from the respect which Adrian entertained for him that he returned to Rome after the death
of Domitian; and the “Conference between Adrian and
Epictetus,
” if the work were authentic, would confirm
this probability; but it is impossible to compare it with his
genuine remains, without pronouncing it spurious.
e might have been taught some of their principles. There are various editions of the remains of this philosopher, published at Leyden in 1670, in 8vo, cum notis variorum; at
Epictetus flourished from the time of Nero to the latter
end of the reign of Adrian, but not so far as the reign of
the Antonines for Aulus Gellius, who wrote in their time,
speaks of Epictetus as lately dead and the emperor Marcus Aurelius mentions him only to lament his loss. The
memory of Epictetus was so highly respected, that, according to Lucian, the earthen lamp by which he used to
study was sold for three thousand drachmas. Epictetus
himself wrote nothing. His beautiful Moral Manual, or
Enchiridion, and his “Dissertations,
” collected by Arrian,
were drawn up from notes which his disciples took from his
lips. Simplicius has left a Commentary upon his doctrine,
in the eclectic manner. There are also various fragments
of the wisdom of Epictetus, preserved by Antoninus, Gellius, Stobaeus, and others. Although the doctrine of Epictetus is less extravagant than that of any other stoic, his
writings every where breathe the true spirit of stoicism,
The tenet of the immortality of the soul was adopted and
maintained by him with a degree of consistency suited to
a more rational system than that of the stoics, who inculcated a renovation of being in the circuit of events, according to the inevitable order of fate; and his exhortations to contentment and submission to Providence are enforced on much sounder principles than those of the stoics.
He also strenuously opposed the opinion held by the stoics
in general, concerning the lawfulness of suicide; and his
whole system of practical virtues approaches nearer than
that of any other instructor unenlightened by revelation,
to the purity of Christian morality. If there were Christians in Nero’s household, which seems certain, it is not
improbable he might have been taught some of their principles. There are various editions of the remains of this
philosopher, published at Leyden in 1670, in 8vo, cum
notis variorum; at Utrecht in 1711, in 4to at Oxford in
1740, in 8vo, by Joseph Simpson, together with the Table
of Cebes, &c. at London in 1742, by J. Upton, in 2 vols.
4to, a very excellent edition. The Enchiridion was published by C. G. Heyne, in 1776, in 8vo, and together with
Cebes’s Table, by Schweighauser, in 179H, fi vols. 8vo,
by far the best edition ever published. These have been
translated into various languages; but the most esteemed
version in our country is that by Mrs. Carter, published in
1758, with notes.
us philosophers of his day, and therefore when we read in Cicero that he boasted he was a selftaught philosopher, we are to understand only that his system of philosophy was
, one of the most celebrated philosophers of antiquity, the real merit of whose system, however, still remains doubtful, was an Athenian of the Egean tribe, and born at Gargettus, in the vicinity of Athens, at the beginning of the third year of the 109th oh mpiad, or B. C. 344. His father Neocles, and his mother Chaerestrata, were of honourable descent, but being reduced to poverty, they were sent with a colony of 2000 Athenian citizens, to the island of Samos, which Pericles had subdued, to divide the lands among them by lot; but wljat fell to their share not proving sufficient lor their subsistence, Neocles took up the profession of a schoolmaster. Epicurus remained at Samos till he was eighteen years of age, when he removed to Athens, which the tyranny of Perdiccas soon made him leave; but after passing one year at Mitylene, and four at Lampsacus, he returned to Athens. From his fourteenth to his thirty-sixth year, he studied under the various philosophers of his day, and therefore when we read in Cicero that he boasted he was a selftaught philosopher, we are to understand only that his system of philosophy was the result of his own reflections, after comparing the doctrines of other sects. About th thirty-second year of his age he opened a school at Mitylene, which he soon removed to Lampsacus, where he had disciples from Colophon, but not satisfied with this obscure situation, he determined to make his appearance on the more public theatre of Athens. Finding, however, the public places in the city proper for this purpose, already occupied by other sects, he purchased a pleasant garden, where he took up his constant residence, and taught his system of philosophy; and hence the Epicureans were called the Philosophers of the Garden. Besides this garden, Epicurus had a house in Melite, a village of the Cecropian tribe, to which he frequently retreated with his friends. From this time to his death, notwithstanding all the disturbances of the state, Epicurus never left Athens, unless in two or three excursions into Ionia to visit his friends. During the siege of Athens by Demetrius, which happened when Epicurus was forty -four years of age, while the city was severely [harassed by famine, Epicurus is said to have supported himself and his friends on a small quantity of beans, which he shared equally with them.
He is said to have written a greater number of works from his own invention, than any other Grecian philosopher; but none are extant except a compendium of his doctrine, preserved
The period in which Epicurus opened his school was
peculiarly favourable to his design. In the room of the
simplicity of the Socratic doctrine, nothing now remained
but the subtlety and affectation of stoicism, the unnatural
severity of the Cynics, or the debasing doctrine of indulgence taught and practised by the followers of Aristippns. The luxurious refinement which now prevailed in
Athens, inclined the younger citizens to listen to a preceptor who smoothed the stern brow of philosophy, and,
under the notion of pleasure, led them unawares to moderation and virtue. Hence his school became exceedingly
popular, and disciples flocked into the garden, not only
from different parts of Greece, but from Egypt and Asia.
Those who were regularly admitted into this school lived
upon such a footing of friendly attachment, that each individual cheerfully supplied the necessities of his brother.
Cicero describes the friendship of the Epicurean fraternity
as unequalled in the history of mankind.
That he might prosecute his philosophical labours with
the less interruption, Epicurus lived in a state of celibacy.
In his own conduct he was exemplary for temperance and
continence, and he inculcated upon his followers severity
of manners, and the strict government of the passions, as
the best means of passing a tranquil and happy life. Notwithstanding his regular manner of living, towards the
close of his days, probably in consequence of intense application to study, his constitution became infirm, and he
was afflicted with the stone. Perceiving from these marks
of decay that his end was approaching, he wrote a will, in
which he bequeathed his garden, and the buildings belonging to it, to Hermachus, and through him to the future professors of his philosophy. On the last day of his
life he wrote to hi friend Hermachus, informing him that
his disease had for fourteen days tormented him with anguish, which nothing could exceed; at the same time he
adds, “All this is counterbalanced by the satisfaction of
mind which I derive from the recollection of my discourses
and discoveries.
” The emperor Marcus Antoninus confirms this account, attesting that Epicurus in his sickness
relied more upon the recollection of his excellent life than
upon the aid of physicians, and instead of complaining of
his pain, conversed with his friends upon those principles
of philosophy which he had before maintained. At length,
finding nature just exhausted, he ordered himself to be
put into a warm bath, where, after refreshing himself with
wine, and exhorting his friends not to forget his doctrines,
he expired. His death happened in the second year of the
127th olympiad, or B.C. 271, and the seventy-third of hisage.
He is said to have written a greater number of works from
his own invention, than any other Grecian philosopher;
but none are extant except a compendium of his doctrine,
preserved by Laertius, and a few fragments dispersed
among ancient authors. Not only did the immediate followers of Epicurus adorn the memory of their master with
the highest honours, but many eminent writers, who have
disapproved of his philosophy, have expressed great respect for his personal merit. Yet it cannot be denied that
from the time when this philosopher appeared to the present day, an uninterrupted course of censure has fallen
upon his memory; so that the name of his sect has almost
become a proverbial expression for every thing corrupt in
principle, and infamous in character. The charges brought
against Epicurus are, that he superseded all religious principles, by dismissing the Gods from the care of the world;
that if he acknowledged their existence, it was only in
conformity to popular prejudice, since, according to his
system, nothing exists in nature but material atoms; that
he discovered great insolence and vanity in the disrespect
with which he treated the memory of former philosdphers,
and the characters and persons of his contemporaries; and
that both the master and the whole fraternity were addicted
to the vilest and most infamous vices. These accusations
against the Epicurean school have been more or less confirmed by men distinguished for their wisdom and virtue,
by Zeno, Cicero, Plutarch, Galen, and many of the
Christian fathers. By what, therefore, are they to be repelled Brucker, who has examined this question with,
his usual acuteness and erudition, observes, that with respect to the first charge, that of impiety, it certainly admits of no refutation. The doctrine of Epicurus concerning
nature, not only militated against the superstitions of the
Athenians, but against the agency of a supreme deity in
the formation and government of the world; and his misconceptions with respect to mechanical motion, and the
nature of divine happiness, ld him in his system to divest
the Deity of some of his primary attributes. It does not
indeed appear that he entirely denied the existence of superior powers. Cicero, who is unquestionably to be ranked
among his opponents, relates, that Epicurus wrote books
concerning piety, and the reverence due to the gods, expressed in terms which might have become a priest; and
he charges him with inconsistency, in maintaining that the
gods ought to be worshipped, whilst he asserted, that they
had no concern in human affairs; herein admitting, that
he revered the gods, but neither through hope nor fear,
merely on account of the majesty and excellence of their
nature. But if, with the utmost contempt for popular superstitions, Epicurus retained some belief in, and respect
for, invisible natures, it is evident that his gods were destitute of many of the essential characters of divinity, and
that his piety was of a kind very different from that which
is inspired by just notions of Deity. Not to urge, that
there is some reason to suspect, that what he taught concerning the gods might have been artfully designed to
screen him from the odium and hazard which would have
attended a direct avowal of atheism.
The second charge against Epicurus, that of insolence
and contempt towards other philosophers, seems scarcely
compatible with the general air of gentleness and civility
which appears in his character. If he claimed to himself
the credit of his own system, he did no more than Zeno,
Plato, and Aristotle, after availing themselves of every
possible aid from former philosophers, had done before
him. But, adds Brucker, calumny never appeared with
greater effrontery, than in accusing Epicurus of intemperance and incontinence. That his character was distinguished by the contrary virtues appears not only from the
numerous attestations brought by Laertius, but even from
the confession of the most creditable opponents of his doctrine, particularly Cicero, Plutarch, and Seneca; and indeed this is sufficiently clear from the particulars which are
related concerning his usual manner of living. But nothing can be a greater proof that his adversaries had little
to allege against his innocence, than that they were obliged
to have recourse to forgery. The infamous letters which
Diotimus, or, according to Athcnucus, Theotimus, ascribed
to him, were proved, in a public court, to have been
fraudulently imposed upon the world, and the author of the
imposition was punished. Whatever might be the case
afterwards, therefore, there is little reason to doubt that,
during the life of Epicurus, his garden was rather a school
of temperance, than a scene of riot and debauchery.
, a Cretan philosopher and poet, of the city of Gnossus in Crete, flourished in that
, a Cretan philosopher and poet, of the
city of Gnossus in Crete, flourished in that island, when
Solon was in great reputation at Athens, in the sixth century B. C. Many fabulous stories are told of him, and it
is not easy to separate the true from the false part of his
history. He was supposed to have been the son of the
nymph Balte. He was a man venerable for religious observances, and it was the general persuasion, all over
Greece, that he was inspired by some heavenly genius;
and that he was frequently favoured with divine revelations.
He devoted himself wholly to poetry, and every thing connected with divine worship. He was the first who introduced the consecration of temples, and the purification of
countries, cities, and likewise private houses. He had little esteem for the people of his own country. St. Paul, in
his epistle to Titus, when speaking of the Cretans, cites
one of his verses, where he says (according to our translation), “The Cretans are always liars, evil beasts, slow
bellies;
” which, however, Fenelon translates less obscurely
in these words, “They were great liars, indolent, yet malignant brutes.
”
, the numbers that have no common measure but unity, which was named the sieve of Eratosthenes. This philosopher likewise composed a treatise for completing the analysis, and
, a Greek of Cyrene, librarian of
Alexandria under king Euergetes, the son of Ptolemy
Philadelphia, was born in the year 275 B. C. He cultivated at once poetry, grammar, philosophy, mathematics,
and excelled in the first and the last. He was styled the
Cosmographer, the measurer of the universe, the second
Plato, and was the first who discovered a method of measuring the bulk and circumference of the earth. He constructed the first observatory, and observed the obliquity
of the ecliptic, and found out also a method of knowing
the primitive numbers, that is, the numbers that have no
common measure but unity, which was named the sieve of
Eratosthenes. This philosopher likewise composed a treatise for completing the analysis, and he solved the problem
of the duplication of the cube, by means of an instrument
composed of several sliders. Having attained the age of
eighty, and being oppressed with infirmities, he voluntarily died of hunger, in the year 195 B. C. He described in
Greek, the reigns of thirty-eight Theban kings, which had
been omitted by Manetho, out of the sacred records of the
Egyptians, at Thebes, and this at the command of king
Euergetes. Apollodorus transcribed this catalogue out of
Eratosthenes, and Sycellus out of Apollodorus. This
catalogue or Laterculus of Eratosthenes is generally owned
to be the most authentic Egyptian account of all others
now extant, and reaches from the beginning of that kingdom after the deluge, till the days of the judges, if not also
till the days of Solomon: and by Diccearchus’s connection
of one of its kings with an antediluvian king of Egypt on
one side, and with the first olympiad of Jphitus on the
other, we gain another long and authentic series of heathen
chronology during all that time. The little that remains
to us of the works of Eratosthenes was printed at Oxford
in 1672, 8vo- There are two other editions one in the
“Uranologia
” of father Petau, Catasterismi cutninterpretatione Latina et commentariis,
” including a dissertation by
the learned Heyne, printed at Gottingen, 1795, 8vo.
ed with the monarch. As they were sitting one day at table opposite to each other, after dinner, the philosopher having said something that was not quite agreeable to the rules
, an eminent scholar of the
middle age, was born in an early part of the ninth century.
The most common account of him is, that he was a native
of Ayr, in Scotland, though some writers have said that
the place of his birth was Ergene, on the borders of Wales,
and others have contended that he was an Irishman. It is,
we apprehend, most probable that he was a Scotchman.
However this may have been, he was animated, in a very
dark period, with a most uncommon desire of literature.
Seeing his country involved in great confusion and ignorance, and that it afforded no means of acquiring the knowledge after which he thirsted, he travelled into foreign,
parts; and it is even asserted, by several authors, that he
went to Athens, and spent some years in studying the
Greek, Chaldaic, and Arabic languages. In whatever
place he obtained his learning, it is certain that in philosophy he had no superior, and in languages no equal, in.
the age during which he flourished. These extraordinary
accomplishments, together with his wit and pleasantry,
which rendered his conversation as agreeable as it was instructive, procured him an invitation from Charles the
Bald, king of France, the greatest patron of literature in
that period, to reside with him. Of this invitation Erigena
accepted, and Jived a number of years in the court of that
prince, on a footing of the most intimate acquaintance and
familiarity. He slept often in the royal apartments, and
dined daily at the royal table. From the following repartee, which is preserved by one of our ancient historians, we may judge of the freedom which Scotus used
with the monarch. As they were sitting one day at table
opposite to each other, after dinner, the philosopher having said something that was not quite agreeable to the rules
of politeness, the king, in a merry humour, asked him,
“Pray what is between a Scot and a sot
” To which he
answered, “Nothing but the table.
” Charles, says the
historian, laughed heartily, and was not in the least offended, as he made it- a rule never to be angry with his
master, as he always called Erigena; yet, in order to assist our belief in the above joke, it has been observed, that
we ought to know in what language Charles and Scotus
conversed. Charles, however, valued this great man for
his wisdom and learning, still more than for his wit, and
retained him about his person, not merely as an agreeable
companion, but as his preceptor in the sciences, and his
best counsellor in the most arduous affairs of governnfenf.
While Scotus resided in the court of France, he composed,
at the desire of his royal patron, a number of works, which
procured him many admirers on the one hand, and many
adversaries on the other. The clergy, in particular, were
dissatisfied with some of his notions, as not being perfectly
orthodox. One of the subjects which employed his pen
was the doctrine of predestination. In his treatise on this
subject, which was addressed to Hincmar, archbishop of
Rheims, and Pardulus, bishop of Laon, the position he
begins with is, that every question may be resolved by four
general rules of philosophy, viz. division, definition, demonstration, and analysis. By these rules he endeavours
to prove, that there cannot be a double predestination, of
one to glory, and another to damnation; and that predestination does not impose any necessity, but that man is
absolutely free; and that, although he cannot do good
without the grace of Jesus Christ, yet he does it, without
being constrained or forced to do it by the will of God, by
his own free choice. Sin, and the consequences of it, and
the punishments with which it is attended, are, says Erigena, mere privations, that are neither foreseen nor predestinated by God; and predestination hath no place but
in those things which God hath pre-ordained in order to
eternal happiness; for our predestination arises from the
foresight of the good use of our free-will. Sentiments so
bold, and delivered in such an age, could not fail of exciting great indignation. Wemlo, or Ganelo, archbishop
of Sens, having read the work, collected out of it several
propositions, which he arranged under nineteen heads,
according to the number and order of the chapters of Scotus’s treatise, and sent them to Prudentius, bishop of
Troyes. This prelate, having examined them, found in
them, as he thought, not only the errors of Pelagius, but
the impiety of the Collyridians. He employed himself,
therefore, in answering Erigena and another answer to
him was written by Florus, a deacon of the church of
Lyons. It does not appear that Scotus engaged any farther in the controversy.
Michael Balbus, the Greek emperor, had sent, in the year 824, a copy of the works of Dionysius, the philosopher, to the emperor Lewis the pious, as a most acceptable present.
Another of his works was upon the subject of the
eucharist, in answer to a famous book of Paschasius Radbertus, concerning the body and blood of Christ. Upon
this head, Erigena had the good sense to oppose the doctrine of transubstantiation.
While our author was employed in these discussions, an
incident occurred, which drew upon him the displeasure of
the Roman pontiff. Michael Balbus, the Greek emperor,
had sent, in the year 824, a copy of the works of Dionysius, the philosopher, to the emperor Lewis the pious, as
a most acceptable present. In France these treatises were
esteemed to be an invaluable treasure; and therefore
Charles the bald, who could not read Greek, was earnestly
desirous of perusing them in a Latin translation. This desire was undoubtedly increased by an opinion which at that
time universally prevailed, though without any proof, that
Dionysius the Areopagite, or St. Denys, was the first
Christian teacher, or apostle, in France. At the request
of Charles, Scotus undertook the task of translating the
works in question, the titles of which were, “On the celestial Monarchy;
” “On the ecclesiastical Hierarchy;
”
“On divine Names;
” and, “On mystic Theology.
” These
books were received with great eagerness by the western
churches; but the translation having been made without
the license of the sovereign pontiff, and containing many
things contrary to the received faith of the church of
Rome, the pope, Nicholas the first, was highly displeased,
and wrote a threatening letter to the French king, requiring that Scotus should be banished from the university of
Paris, and sent to Rome. Charles had too much affection
and respect for our author to obey the pope’s order; but
Erigena thought it advisable, for his safety, to retire from,
Paris. According to some writers, it was upon this occasion that he returned to England. It was the translation
of the works of the pretended Dionysius which revived the
knowledge of Alexandrian Platonism in the west, and laid
the foundation of the mystical system of theology, which
afterwards so generally prevailed. Hence it was, that philosophical enthusiasm, born in the east, nourished by Plato,
educated in Alexandria, matured in Asia, and adopted
into the Greek church, found its way into the western
church, and there produced innumerable mischiefs.
ning the origin of things, their subsistence and various alterations, relating to the design of this philosopher to treat of chemical matters. He therefore subjoins another
, president of the parliament of
Bourdeaux, a man of learning in the seventeenth century,
acquired considerable fame by publishing in 1623, a book
entitled “Enchyridion physicse restitutae.
” He did not
put his name to this, but it is proved to be his by several
of his acquaintance, as well as by the device at the beginning, “Spes mea est in agno,
” and before the treatise
of chemistry, “Pene nos unda Tagi,
” which are both anagrams of his name. It was the first work that appeared in
France, professing to contain a complete system of physics
contrary to that of Aristotle. The author, however, while
he says that he has only re-established the ancient philosophy, has added many things of his own invention. He
confutes the opinion of materia prima, which was held to
be extended every where without being any where perceived, and incessantly tending to the uuion of forms
without having any, being the basis and support of contraries, viz. of the elements which are said to be produced
out of it. He shows that this system of nature is imaginary, that there is no contrariety in the elements, and
that which is observed in them proceeds from the excess of
their qualities, and that when they are tempered there is
no contrariety in them. Yet he believes that there is a
materia prima from whence the elements result and become
the second matter of things, which are earth and water;
for he holds neither air nor fire for elements. The elements, according to his notion, are not transformed into
each other: water only becomes vapour, and vapour water,
by circulation. He places the real fire of the world in the
sun, which he calls not only the eye of the universe, but
the eye of the creator of the universe, by which he beholds
in a sensible manner his creatures, and which is the first
agent of the world. The rest of his book abounds in curious particulars concerning the origin of things, their subsistence and various alterations, relating to the design of
this philosopher to treat of chemical matters. He therefore subjoins another treatise, entitled “Arcanum Hermeticae philosophic opus,
” in which he discourses of the matter of the philosopher’s stone and its digestions, of the
degrees of fire, of the figure of the vessels and furnace, of
the composition of the elixir and its multiplication. This
book was translated into French under the title of “La
Philosophic des Anciens retablie en sa purete.
” In Le Rozier des
Guerres;
” and added to it a treatise of his own upon the
institution of a young prince. This ms. was found at
Nerac in the king’s closet. Mr. d'Espagnet thought his
edition to be the first, but it had been printed in 1523, in
folio, which edition is more complete than this of 1616.
In the ms. of Nerac, was wanting all the second part, and
the three last chapters of the first. For this account the
reader is referred to Naude“'s
” Addition a Phistoire de
Louis XI.“p. 72; and to
” Syntagma de studio militari,“p. 73. The prologue alone suunces to convince us that
Louis XI. is not the author of that work, as the title pretends, though he speaks in it as giving instructions to the
dauphin his son. See the
” Bibliotheque Choisie“of M.
Colomie’s. In the publication of the
” Rozier des Guerres,“he punctually retains the old spelling and in his advertisement to the reader gives this reason for it
” This little
tract, du Rozier,“says he,
” seemed to me so good that I
would not embellish or disguise it, but have left in its native simplicity: and though the language of it is not in use
in our times, yet it may be understood, being so full of
good sense and meaning, that with all its jargon it may
silence the affected diction of the court and bar. 1 have
also carefully preserved the orthography; because in adding or diminishing a letter, a word is often changed, and
of ancient made modern. By this means, in my judgment, the language of Philip de Commines, in his history,
has been corrupted: the editors, thinking to mend the
spelling, and polish the diction, have destroyed the marks
of its antiquity, so that the style of his book is not the
style of his times; as we may judge both by this little
manuscript, and by many others of the same age, which are
to be found in famous libraries, especially by the history of
Charles VI. written by John Juvenal des Ursins, and
lately published by the sieur de Godefroy. I imagine this
error proceeds from the insufficiency of the correctors;
who, pretending to correct the orthography, have adulterated it, and thereby rendered themselves plagiaries."
1737, in the seventy-seventh year of his age, equally lamented by the citizen, the scholar, and the philosopher. He left no issue by his wife, Lucia Felicia de Noailles.
, born in 1660, succeeded John, count d'Estrees, his father, in the post of vice-admiral of France, which he filled with great reputation in the maritime parts of the Levant. He bombarded Barcelona and Alicant in 1691, and commanded in 1G97 the fleet at the siege of Barcelona; being appointed in 1701 lieutenant-general of the naval forces of Spain by Philip V. a station which he held together with that of vice-admiral of France, and thus had the command of the Spanish and French fleets. Two years afterwards, in 1703, he was made marshal of France, and took the name of marechal des Cceuvres. This dignity was followed by those of grandee of Spain, and knight of the golden fleece; all which he merited by his heroic but prudent courage. Though the abb de St. Pierre describes him as a man of a capricious temper, he had an excellent disposition, and was capable of strong attachments. The French academy, that of sciences, and that of inscriptions, admitted him of their societies. Amidst the tumultuous occupations of war, he never forgot the cultivation of letters. He died at Paris, Dec, 28, 1737, in the seventy-seventh year of his age, equally lamented by the citizen, the scholar, and the philosopher. He left no issue by his wife, Lucia Felicia de Noailles.
, of Miletus, a philosopher of the Megaric school, who flourished about the 105th olympiad,
, of Miletus, a philosopher of the Megaric
school, who flourished about the 105th olympiad, or the
year 360 B. C. was the disciple and successor of Euclid,
and a strenuous opponent of Aristotle, whose writings and
character he took every occasion of censuring and calumniating. He is most remarkable, however, for having introduced new subtleties into the art of disputation, several
of which, though often mentioned as proofs of great ingenuity, deserve only to be remembered as examples of
egregious trifling. Of these sophistical modes of reasoning, called by Aristotle Eristic syllogisms, the following
may suffice: 1. Of the sophism, called from the example,
The Lying: “if when you speak the truth, you say you
lie, you lie; but you say you lie, when you speak the
truth: therefore, in speaking the truth, you lie.
” 2. The
Occult; “Do you know your father? Yes. Do you know
this man who is veiled? No. Then you do not know your
father; for it is your father who is veiled.
” 3. Sorites,
“Is one grain a heap? No. Two grains? No. Three
grains? No. Go on, adding one by one and, if one
grain be not a heap, it will be impossible to say, what
number of grains make a heap.
” 4. The Horned. “You
have what you have not lost; you have not lost horns;
therefore you have horns.
” In such high repute were
these silly inventions for perplexing plain truth, that Chrysippus wrote six books upon the first of these sophisms;
and Philetas, a Choan, died of a consumption which he
contracted by the close study which he bestowed upon it.
, an eminent philosopher, who flourished irv the 97th olympiad, about 390 B. C. was the
, an eminent philosopher, who flourished irv
the 97th olympiad, about 390 B. C. was the founder of the
Megaric sect, which was so called from Megara, where he
was bora. He was endued by nature with a subtle and
penetrating genius, and applied himself early to the study
of philosophy. The writings of Parmenides first taught
him the art of disputation. Hearing of the fame of Socrates, Euclid removed from Megara to Athens, where he
long remained a constant hearer, and zealous disciple, of that
philosopher; and such was his regard for him, that, when,
in consequence of the enmity which subsisted between the
Athenians and Megarians, a decree was passed by the
forner, that any inhabitant of Megara, who should be seen
in Athens should forfeit his life, he frequently came to
Athens by night, from the distance of about twenty miles,
concealed in a long female cloak and veil, to visit his
master. But as his natural propensity to disputation was
not sufficiently gratified in the tranquil method of philosophising adopted by Socrates, he frequently engaged in
the business and disputes of the civil courts, at which Socrates, who despised forensic contests, expressed some
dissatisfaction. This probably was the occasion of a separation between Euclid and his master; for we find him,
after this time, at the head of a school in Megara, in
which his chief employment was, to teach the art of disputation, which he did with so much vehemence, that Timon
said, Euclid had carried the madness of contention from
Athens to Megara. He was, however, at times sufficiently
master of his temper, as appears from his reply to his brother, who in a quarrel had said, “Let me perish if I be
not revenged on you:
” “and let me perish,
” returned
Euclid, “if I do not subdue your, resentment by forbearance, and make you love me as much as ever.
” In disputation, Euclid was averse to the analogical method of reasoning, and judged, that legitimate argumentation consists
in deducing fair conclusions from acknowledged premises.
He held, that there is one supreme good, which he called
by the different names of Intelligence, Providence, God;
and that evil, considered as an opposite principle to the
sovereign good, has no physical existence. The supreme
good he defined to be that which is always the same. Good
he therefore considered abstractedly, as residing in the
Deity, and he seems to have maintained, that all things
which exist are good by their participation of the first
good, and that in the nature of things there is no real evil.
When Euclid was asked his opinion concerning the gods,
he replied, “I know nothing more of them than this: that
they hate inquisitive persons,
” an answer which at that
time, and remembering the fate of Socrates, shows his prudence at least.
o Theodosius the younger), whose proper name was Athenais, was the daughter of Leontius, an Athenian philosopher, and born about the year 400. Her father took such care of her
, a Roman empress (wife to Theodosius the younger), whose proper name was Athenais, was the
daughter of Leontius, an Athenian philosopher, and born
about the year 400. Her father took such care of her education, that she became at length so accomplished in learning, that, at his death, he left his whole estate to his two
sons, except an hundred pieces of gold, which he bequeathed to his daughter, with this declaration, that “her
own good fortune would be sufficient for her.
” This compliment, however, did not satisfy her, and having gone to
law with her brothers, without success, she carried her
cause to Constantinople, where she was recommended to
Pulcheria, sister of the emperor Theodosius the younger,
and became her favourite. In the year 421 she embraced
Christianity, and changed her name from Athenais to Eudocia 3 and the same year was married to the emperor,
through the powerful recommendation of his sister; by
which event her father’s prophecy appeared to be fulfilled.
Amidst all the grandeurof her new situation, she still continued to lead a very studious and philosophic life, spending much of her time in reading and writing; and lived
very happily till the year 445, when an apparently trifling
accident exposed her to the emperor’s jealousy. The emperor, it is said, having sent her an apple of an extraordinary
size, she sent it to Paulinus, whom she respected on ac"count of his learning. Paulinus, not knowing from whom
it came, presented it to the emperor who, soon after seeing the empress, asked her what she had done with it.
She, being apprehensive of raising suspicions in her husband, if she should tell him that she had given it to Paulinus, very unwisely declared that she had eaten it, which
excited a suspicion of her intimacy with Paulinus, that
seemed to be confirmed by her confusion on his producing
the apple. He also put Paulinus to death. Upon this she
went to Jerusalem, where she spent many years in building
and adorning churches, and in relieving the poor. It is
said that even when here, the jealousy of Theodosius pursued her, and that hearing she visited the priest Severus
and the deacon John, he sent Saturninus with orders to
put them both to death. Eudocia was so irritated at this
barbarous persecution, that she for once stained the purity
of her own life, by procuring Saturninus to be murdered.
Dupin says, she did not return while the emperor lived;
but Cave tells us, that she was reconciled to him, returned
to Constantinople, and continued with him till his death;
after which, she went again to Palestine, where she spent
the remainder of her life in pious works. She died about
A. D. 460; and, as Cave says, upon her death-bed, took
a solemn oath, by which she declared herself entirely free
from any stains of unchastity.
, a Pythagorean philosopher, of Cnidus, a city of Caria in Asia Minor, flourished about
, a Pythagorean philosopher, of Cnidus, a city of Caria in Asia Minor, flourished about 370 years before Christ. He learned geometry from Archytas, and afterwards travelled into Egypt to learn astronomy and other sciences. There he and Plato studied together, as Laertius informs us, for the space of thirteen years; and afterwards came to Athens, fraught with all sorts of knowledge, which they had imbibed from the priests. Here Eudoxus opened a school, which he supported with so much glory and renown, that even Plato, though his friend, is said to have envied him; he also composed elements of geometry, from whence Euclid liberally borrowed, as mentioned by Proclus. Cicero calls Eudoxus the greatest astronomer that had ever lived: and Petronius says, he spent the latter part of his life upon the top of a very high mountain, that he might contemplate the stars and the heavens with more convenience and less interruption: and we learn from Strabo, that there were some remains of hisi observatory at Cnidus, to be seen even in his time. None of his works are extant, but he is said by Fabricius (Bibl. GriEC. lib. hi. c. 5.) to have written upon music, and he gathers from Theon of Smyrna, p. 94, that Eudoxus was the first who expressed the ratios of concords by numbers, and who discovered that grave and acute sounds depend on the slow or quick vibrations of the sounding body. He died in the fifty-third year of his age.
of the several memoirs of Euler and Bernouilli, on this occasion, is very remarkable. Though the one philosopher had set out on the principle of admitting vortices, which the
, a very eminent mathematician,
was born at Basil, on the 14th of April, 1707: he was the
son of Paul Euler and of Margaret Brucker (of a family illustrious in literature), and spent the first year of his life
at the village of Richen, of which place his father was protestant minister. Being intended for the church, his father,
who had himself studied under James Bernoulli!, taught
him mathematics, as a ground-work of his other studies, or
at least a noble and useful secondary occupation. But
Euler, assisted and perhaps secretly encouraged by John
Bernoulli, who easily discovered that he would be the
greatest scholar he should ever educate, soon declared his
intention of devoting his life to that pursuit. This intention the wise father did not thwart, but the son did not so
blindly adhere to it, as not to connect with it a more than
common improvement in every other kind of useful learn-,
ing, insomuch that in his latter days men often wondered
how with such a superiority in one branch, he could have
been so near to eminence in all the rest. Upon the foundation of the academy of sciences at St. Petersburgh, in,
1723, by Catherine I. the two younger Bernouillis, NichoJas and Daniel, had gone thither, promising, when they
set out, to endeavour to procure Euler a place in it: they
accordingly wrote to him soon after, to apply his mathetics to physiology, which he did, and studied under the
best naturalists at Basil, but at the same time, i. e. in 1727,
published a dissertation on the nature and propagation of
sound; and an answer to the question on the masting of
ships, which the academy of sciences at Paris judged
worthy of the accessit. Soon after this, he was called to
St. Petersburgh, and declared adjutant to the mathematical
class in the academy, a class, in which, from the circumstances of the times (Newton, Leibnitz, and so many other eminent scholars being just dead), no easy laurels were to
be gathered. Nature, however, who had organized so
many mathematical heads at one time, was not yet tired
of her miracles and she added Euler to the number. He
indeed was much wanted the science of the calculus integralis, hardly come out of the hands of its creators, was
still too near the stage of its infancy not to want to be made
more perfect. Mechanics, dynamics, and especially hydrodynamics, and the science of the motion of the heavenly bodies, felt the imperfection. The application of
the differential calculus, to them, had been sufficiently
successful; but there were difficulties whenever it was necessary to go from the fluxional quantity to the fluent.
With regard to the nature and properties of numbers, the
writings of Fermat (who had been so successful in them),
and together with these all his profound researches, were
lost. Engineering and navigation were reduced to vague
principles, and were founded on a heap of often contradictory observations, rather than a regular theory. The
irregularities in the motions of the celestial bodies, and
especially the complication of forces whitfh influence that
of the moon, were still the disgrace of geometers. Practical astronomy had jet to wrestle with the imperfection of
telescopes, insomuch, that it could hardly be said that any
rule for making them existed. Euler turned his eyes to
all these objects he perfected the calculus integralis he
was the inventor of a new kind of calculus, that of sines
he simplified analytical operations and, aided by these
powerful help-mates, and the astonishing facility with
which he knew how to subdue expressions the most intractable, he threw a new light on all the branches of the mathematics. But at Catherine’s death the academy was
threatened with extinction, by men who knew not the connection which arts and sciences have with the happiness of
a people. Euler was offered and accepted a lieutenancy
on board one of the empress’s ships, with the promise of
speedy advancement. Luckily things changed, and the
learned captain again found his own element, and was
named Professor of Natural Philosophy in 1733, in the
room of his friend John Bernouilli. The number of memoirs which Euler produced, prior to this period, is astonishing, but what he did in 1735 is almost incredible,
An important calculation was to be made, without loss of
time; the other academicians had demanded some months
to do it. Euler asked three days—in three days he did it;
but the fatigne threw him into a fever, and the fever left
him not without the loss of an eye, an admonition which
would have made an ordinary man more sparing of the
other. The great revolution, produced by the discovery
of fluxions, had entirely changed the face of mechanics;
still, however, there was no complete work on the science
of motion, two or three only excepted, of which Euler felt
the insufficiency. He saw, with pain, that the best works
on the subject, viz. “Newton’s Principia,
” and “Herman’s Phoronomia,
” concealed the method by which these
great men had come at so many wonderful discoveries,
under a synthetic veil. In order to lift this up, Euler
employed all the resources of that analysis which had
served him so well on so many other occasions; and thus
uniting his own discoveries to those of other geometers, had
them published by the academy in 1736. To say that
clearness, precision, and order, are the characters of this
work, would be barely to say, that it is, what without these
qualities no work can be, classical of its kind. It placed
Euler in the rank of the first geometricians then existing,
and this at a time when John Bernouilli was still living.
Such labours demanded some relaxation; the only one
which Euler admitted was music, but even to this he could
not go without the spirit of geometry with him. They
produced together the essay on a new theory of music,
which was published in 1739, but not very well received,
probably, because it contains too much geometry for a
musician, and too much music for a geometrician. Independently, however, of the theory, which is built on Pythagorean principles, there are many things in it which
may be of service, both to composers, and to makers of
instruments. The doctrine, likewise, of the genera and
the modes of music is here cleared up with all the clearness and precision which mark the works of Euler. Dr.
Burney remarks, that upon the whole, Euler seems not to
have invented much in this treatise; and to have done little
more than arrange and methodize former discoveries in a
scientific and geometric manner. He may, indeed, not
have known what antecedent writers had discovered before; and though not the first, yet to have imagined himself an inventor. In 1740, his genius was again called
forth by the academy of Paris (who, in 1738, had adjudged the prize to his paper on the nature and properties of fire)
to discuss the nature of the tides, an important question,
which demanded a prodigious extent of calculations, aud
an entire new system of the world. This prize Euler did
not gain alone; but he divided it with Maclaurin and D.
Bernouilli, forming with them a triumvirate of candidates,
which the realms of science had not often beheld. The
agreement of the several memoirs of Euler and Bernouilli,
on this occasion, is very remarkable. Though the one
philosopher had set out on the principle of admitting vortices, which the other rejected, they not only arrived at
the same end of the journey, but met several times on the
road; for instance, in the determination of the tides under
the frozen zone. Philosophy, indeed, led these two great
men by different paths; Bernouilli, who had more patience
than his friend, sanctioned every physical hypothesis he
was obliged to make, by painful and laborious experiment.
These Euler’s impetuous genius scorned; and, though his
natural sagacity did not always supply the loss, he made
amends by his superiority in analysis, as often as there was
any occasion to simplify expressions, to adapt them to
practice, and to recognize, by final formulae, the nature
of the result. In 1741, Euler received some very advantageous propositions from Frederic the Second (who had just ascended the Prussian throne), to go and assist him in
forming an academy of sciences, out of the wrecks of the
Royal Society founded by Leibnitz. With these offers the
tottering state of the St. Petersburgh academy, under the
regency, made it necessary for the philosopher to comply.
He accordingly illumined the last volume of the “Melanges de Berlin,
” with five essays, which are, perhaps,
the best things in it, and contributed largely to the academical volumes, the first of which was published in 1744.
No part of his multifarious labours is, perhaps, a more
wonderful proof of the extensiveness and facility of his
genius, than what he executed at Berlin, at a time when
he contrived also that the Petersburgh acts should not
suffer from the loss of him. In 1744, Euler published a
complete treatise of isoperimetrical curves. The same
year beheld the theory of the motions of tb.e planets and
comets; the well-known theory of magnetism, which gained the Paris prize; and the much-amended translation of
Robins’ s “Treatise on Gunnery.
” In Theory
of Light and Colours
” overturned Newton’s “System of
Emanations;
” as did another work, at that time triumphant,
the “Monads of Wolfe and Leibnitz.
” Navigation was
now the only branch of useful knowledge, for which the
labours of analysis and geometry had done nothing. The
hydrographical part alone, and that which relates to the
direction of the course of ships, had been treated by geometricians conjointly with nautical astronomy. Euler was
the first who conceived and executed the project of making
this a complete science. A memoir on the motion of floating bodies, communicated to the academy of St. Petersburgh, in 1735, by M. le Croix, first gave him this idea.
His researches on the equilibrium of ships furnished him
with the means of bringing the stability to a determined
measure. His success encouraged him to go on, and produced the great work which the academy published in
1749, in which we find, in systematic order, the most
sublime notions on the theory of the equilibrium and mo.
tion of floating bodies, and on the resistance of fluids.
This was followed by a second part, which left nothing to
be desired on the subject, except the turning it into a
language easy of access, and divesting it of the calculations which prevented its being of general use. Accordingly in 1773, from a conversation with admiral Knowles,
and other assistance, out of the “Scientia Navalis,
” 2 vols.
4to, was produced, the “Theorie complette de la Construction et de la Manoeuvre des Vaisseaux.
” This work
was instantly translated into all languages, and the author
received a present of 6000 livres from the French king: he
had before had 300l. from the English parliament, for the
theorems, by the assistance of which Meyer made his lunar
tables .
And now it was time to collect into one systematical and
continued work, all the important discoveries on the infinitesimal analysis, which Euler had been making for
thirty years, and which lay dispersed in the memoirs of the
different academies. This, accordingly, the professor undertook; but he prepared the way by an elementary work,
containing all the previous requisites for this study. This
is called “An Introduction to the analysis of Infinitesimals,
” and is a work in which the author has exhausted
all the doctrine of fractions, whether algebraical or transcendental, by shewing their transformation, their resolution, and their developernent. This introduction was soon,
followed by the author’s several lessons on the “calculus
integralis, and differentialis.
” Having engaged himself
to count Orlow, to furnish the academy with papers sufficient to fill their volumes for twenty years after his death,
the philosopher is likely to keep his word, having presented
seventy papers, through Mr. Golofkin, in the course of his
life, and left two hundred and fifty more behind him; nor
is there one of these that does not contain a discovery, or
something that may lead to one. The most ancient of
these memoirs form the collection then published, under
the title of “Opuscula Analytica.
” Such were Euler’s
labours, and these his titles to immortality His memory
shall endure till science herself is no more! Few men of
letters have written so much as Euler no geometrician,
has ever embraced so many objects at one time or has
equalled him, either in the variety or magnitude of his
discoveries. When we reflect on the good such men do
their fellow-creatures, we cannot help indulging a wish
(vain, alas as it is) for their illustrious course to be prolonged beyond the term allotted to mankind. Euler’s,
though it has had an end, was very long and very honourable; and it affords us some consolation for his loss, to
think that he enjoyed it exempt from the ordinary consequences of extraordinary application, and that his last labours abounded in proofs of that vigour of understanding
which marked his early days, and which he preserved to
his end. Some swimmings in the head, which seized him
on the first days of September, 1783, did not prevent his
laying hold of a few facts, which reached him through the
channel of the public papers, to calculate the motions of
the aerostatical globes; and he even compassed a very difficult integration, in which the calculation had engaged
him . But the decree was gone forth: on the 7th of September he talked with Mr. Lexell, who had come to dine
with him, of the new planet, and discoursed with him upon
other subjects, with his usual penetration. He was playing with one of his grand-children at tea-time, when he
was seized with an apoplectic fit. “I am dying,
” said he,
before he lost his senses; and he ended his glorious life a
few hours after, aged seventy-six years, five months, and
three days. His latter days were tranquil and serene. A
few infirmities excepted, which are the inevitable lot of
an advanced age, he enjoyed a share of health which allowed him to give little time to repose. Euler possessed
to a great degree what is commonly called erudition he
had read all the Latin classics was perfect master of ancient mathematical literature and had the history of all
ages, and all nations, even to the minutest facts, ever present to his mind. Besides this, he knew much more of
physic, botany, and chemistry, than could be expected
from any man who had not made these sciences his peculiar
occupation. “I have seen,
” says his biographer, Mr.
Fuss, “strangers go from him with a kind of surprise mixed
with admiration; they could not conceive how a man,
who for half a century had seemed taken up in making
and publishing discoveries in natural philosophy and mathematics, could have found means to preserve so much
knowledge that seemed useless to himself, and foreign to
the studies in which he was engaged. This was the effect
of a happy memory, that lost nothing of what had ever
been entrusted to it nor was it a wonder that the man
who was able to repeat the whole Æneis, and to point out
to his hearers the first and last verses of every page of his
own edition of it, should not have lost what he had learned,
at an age when the impressions made upon us are the
strongest. Nothing can equal the ease with which, without expressing the least degree of ill-humour, he could
quit his abstruse meditations, and give himself up to the
general amusements of society. The art of not appearing
wise above one’s fellows, of descending to the level of those
with whom one lives, is too rare in these days not to make
it a merit in Euler to have possessed it. A temper ever
equal, a natural and easy chearfulness, a species of satirical wit, tempered with urbane humanity, the art of telling
a story archly, and with simplicity, made his conversation
generally sought. The great fund of vivacity which he
had at all times possessed, and without which, indeed, the
activity we have just been admiring could not have existed,
carried him sometimes away, and he was apt to grow warm,
but his anger left him as quickly as it came on, and there
never has existed a man to whom he bore malice. He
possessed a precious fund of rectitude and probity. The
sworn enemy of injustice, whenever or by whomsoever
committed, he used to censure and attack it, without the
least attention to the rank or riches of the offender. Recent examples of this are in the recollection of all who hear
me.
” As he was filled with respect for religion, his piety
was sincere, and his devotion full of fervour. He went
through all his Christian duties with the greatest attention.
Euler loved all mankind, and if he ever felt a motion of
indignation, it was against the enemy of religion, particularly against the declared apostles of infidelity. He was
of a very religious turn of mind. He published a New Demonstration of the Existence of God, and of the Spirituality
of the Soul, which last has been admitted into several divinity schools as a standard book. With scrupulous exactness he adhered to the religion of his country, that of
Calvinism, and, fortified by its principles, he was a good
husband, a good father, a good friend, a good citizen, a
good member of private society.
, a stoic philosopher, who flourished in the second century, was a friend of Dio and
, a stoic philosopher, who
flourished in the second century, was a friend of Dio and
of Apollonius Tyanseus, who introduced him to Vespasian.
Although a violent quarrel arose between the latter philosopher and Euphrates, in consequence of which Philostratus, the panegyrist of the former, inveighs with great
severity against the latter, it appears from the testimony
of Epictetus, Pliny the younger, and Eusebius, that Euphrates was v universally esteemed for his talents and virtues,
and that the censures of Philostratus deserve only contempt. Pliny’s character of him is highly interesting.
“If ever,
” says he, " polite learning flourished at Rome,
it certainly does at present. Of this I could give you
many instances; but I will content myself with naming
only Euphrates the philosopher. When in my youth I
served in the army in Syria, I had an opportunity of conversing familiarly with this excellent man, and took some
pains to gain his affection, though that indeed - was
not difficult for he is exceedingly open to access, and
full of that gentleness of manner which he teaches. Euphrates is possessed of shining talents, which cannot fail
to interest even the unlearned. He discourses with great
accuracy, dignity, and elegance; and frequently rises into
the sublimity and luxuriance of Plato himself. His style
is copious and diversified, and so wonderfully sweet as to
captivate even the most reluctant auditor. Add to all this,
his graceful form, comely aspect, long hair, and large
white beard; circumstances which, though they may probably be thought trifling and accidental, contribute, however, to procure him much reverence. There is no
disgusting negligence in his dress; his countenance is grave,
but not austere; his approach commands respect, without exciting awe. With the strictest sanctity, he unites
the most perfect politeness of manner. He inveighs against
vice, not against men; and, without chastising, reclaims the
offender. You listen with 6xed attention to his exhortations,
and even when convinced, still hang with eagerness upon
his lips. In conformity to the principles of the stoic philosophy, Euphrates, when he found his strength worn out
by disease and old age, voluntarily put a period to his life
by drinking hemlock, having first, for some unknown reason, obtained permission from the emperor Adrian.
to the writings of Eusebius; for we might have learned from' them the objections of the most learned philosopher of his time, and the answers of the most learned bishop also
Eusebius wrote, 5. “Contra Hieroclem liber.
” Hierocles
had written a book under the name of Philalethes, against
the Christian religion; in which, to> render it ridiculous,
he had compared Apollonius Tyanseus with Christ, affirming that the former had worked miracles as well as the latter, and was ascended to heaven as well as he. Against
this work of Hierocles, Ewsebius’s book was written; and
it is printed at the eml of the “De Demonstratione Evangelica,
” and at the end of Philostratus “De vita Apollonii.
” 6. “Contra Marcellum, libri II.
” and “De Ecclcsiastica Tbeologia, libri III.
” This work was designed
to confute Marcellus, bishop of Ancyra, who was condemned for Sabellianism in the synod at Constantinople in
the year 336; and was written at the desire of that synod.
It is subjoined also to the book “De Demonstratione.
”
7. “Epistola ad Cicsarienses de fide Nicajna.
” Socrates
and Theodoret have preserved this in their ecclesiastical
histories. 8. “De locis Hebraicis,
” containing a geographical description of all the countries, cities, and places,
mentioned in the Old Testament. It was translated into
Latin, and at the same time enlarged and corrected by St.
Jerom. The original, with that translation, and a new version, with learned notes, was published by James Bonfrerius at Paris in 1631 and 1659. 9. “Oratio de laudibus
Constantini,
” mentioned above, which is printed at the
end of the Ecclesiastical History. 10. “De vita Constantini, libri IV.
” This is rather a panegyric than a life,
being written in a florid and oratorical style. Some have
denied this to be Eusebius’ s; but Cave thinks their arguments so inconsiderable, as not to deserve a particular
answer. It is subjoined to the Ecclesiastical History. 11.
“Expositio in Canticum Canticorum.
” This was not written entirely by Eusebius, but compiled partly out of his
writings, and partly out of those of Athanasius, Didymus,
St. Gregory of Nyssen, and others. It was published in
Greek with Polychronius and Psellus by Meursius at Leyden, 1617, 4to. 12. “Vitae prophetarum,
” ascribed to
Eusebius in an ancient manuscript, and published with
the Commentaries of Procopius on Isaiah, in Greek and
Latin, by Curterius, at Paris, 1580, in folio. 13. “Cajioues sacrorum evangeliorum X.
” The translation of
these by St. Jerom js published among that father’s works,
and in the “Bibliotheca Patrum.
” 14. “Apologise pro
Origene liber primus,
” translated by Ruffinus, is published
in St. Jerom’s works. St. Jerom tells us that Eusebius was
the sole author of the “Six Books of the Apology for
Origen,
” ascribed to his friend Pamphilus: but it is evident from the testimony of Eusebius himself and from
that of Photius, that he wrote the first five books in conjunction with Pamphilus, and added the sixth after the
death of that martyr. The Latin translation of the first
book of this work is all that we have remaining of it. 15.
“Sermo in illud, Sero sabbatorum. Item, De Angelis ad
monumentum visis.
” These two sermons were published
in Greek and Latin by Combefisius. Besides these works
of Eusebius, there are several extant in ms. which have
not yet been published; and the titles of several, which
are not extant. Of the latter kind, the thirty books
“against Porphyry,
” (though Cave makes but twenty-five)
“are,
” says Le Clerc, “in all probability the greatest loss
which we have sustained with respect to the writings of
Eusebius; for we might have learned from' them the objections of the most learned philosopher of his time, and
the answers of the most learned bishop also of his time.
”
, celebrated as a philosopher, patriot, and learned writer of the seventeenth century, was
, celebrated as a philosopher, patriot, and learned writer of the seventeenth century, was descended from an ancient and honourable family, a branch of which, at the time of his birth, was settled in the county of Surrey, though it flourished originally in the county of Salop, at a place which is still called Evelyn. George Evelyn, esq. purchased the family estate at Wotton in Surrey, in the reign of queen Elizabeth, and had, by two wives, sixteen sons and eight daughters. He died May 30, 1603, in the seventy-third year of his age, leaving his estate at Wotton to Richard Evelyn, esq. his youngest and only surviving son by his second wife. This Richard Evelyn, esq. married Eleanor, or Ellen, daughter and heiress of John Stansficld, of die Cliff" near Lewes, esq. and had by her three sons, George, John, and Richard.
c poet, nephew to Ennius. Socrates, the wisest of men, and Plato himself, Metrodorus and Pyrrhus the philosopher, did both desigii and paint and so did Valentinian, Adrian,
As considerable light is thrown on the history and merits
of Mr. Evelyn from the account given of his works, little
apology need be made for the length of the article, taken
principally from the Biographia Britannica. These were,
1. His treatise “Of Liberty and Servitude,
” A Character of England, as it
was lately presented in a letter to a nobleman of France,
with reflections upon Callus Castratus,
” The State of France,
” London, An Essay on the First Book of Titus Lucretius
Carus, de renim natura, interpreted, and made into English verse, by J. Evelyn, esq.
” London, Never
was book so abominably misused by printer; never copy
so negligently surveied by one who undertooke to looke
over the proofe-sheetes with all exactnesse and care, naqely
Dr. Triplet, well knowne for his abiilitie, and who pretended,
to oblige me in Hiv absence, and so readily offer'd himselfe. This good yet I received by it, that publishing it
vaiiu-ly, its ill succese at the printer’s discouraged me with
troubling the world with the rest.
” 5. “The French Gardener, instructing how to cultivate all sorts of fruit-trees
and herbs for the garden, together with directions to dry
and conserve them in their natural,
” &c. Lond. The English Vineyard vindicated, by John Rose,
gardener to his majesty king Charles II. with a' tract of the
making and ordering of wines in France.
” The third edition
of this French Gardener, which came out in 1676, was illustrated with sculptures. 6. “The golden book of St.
Oh ry sos torn, concerning the Education of Children.
” Lond.
An Apology for the Royal Party, c.
” The late News or Message from
Brussels unmasked,
” Instructions concerning the erecting of a Library, written by Gabriel Naude
”, published in
English, with some improvements,“Lond. 1661, 8vo. ll.
” Fumifugium or the inconveniences of the air and the
smoke of London dissipated together with some remedies
humbly proposed,“London, 1661, 4to, in five sheets, addressed to the king and parliament, and published by hisma
jesty’s express command. Of this there was a late edition
in 1772. 12.
” Tyrannies or the Mode in a discourse of
sumptuary laws“Lond. 1661, 8vo. 13.
” Sculptnra; or
the history a-id art of Chalcography and Engraving in Copper, with an ample enumeration of the most renowned
masters and their works; to which is annexed, a new manner of engraving, or mezzo-tinto,. communicated by his
highness prince Rupert to the author of this treatise,“Lond. 1662, 8vo. In the dedication to Mr. Robert Boyle,
dated: at Sayes-court, April 5th, 1662, he observes, that
he wrote this treatise at the reiterated instance of that
gentleman. The first chapter treats of sculpture, howderived and distinguished, with the styles and instruments
belonging to it. The second, of the original of sculpture
in general. la this chapter our author observes, that
letters, and consequently sculpture, were lon.g before the
flood, Suidas ascribing both letters and all the rest of
the sciences to Adam. After the flood, as he supposes,
there were but few who make any considerable question,
that it might not be propagated by Noah to his posterity, though some admit of none before Moses. The
third chapter treats of the reputation and progress of
sculpture among the Greeks and Romans down to the
middle ages, with a discussion of some pretensions to
the invention of copper cuts and their impressions. The
fourth, of the invention and progress of chalcography in particular, together with an ample enumeration of the most renowned masters and their works. The fifth, of drawing and
design previous to the art of chalcography, and of the use
of pictures in order to theeducation of children. In this
chapter, our author, in honour of the art upon which he
writes, discourses thus:
” It was in the former chapter
that we made rehearsal of the most renowned gravers and
their works, not that we had no more to add to that number, but because we would not mingle these illustrious
names and qualities there, which we purposely reserved for
the crown of this discourse. We did, therefore, forbear
to mention what his highness prince Rupert’s own hands
have contributed to the dignity of that art, performing
things in graving, of which some enrich our collection,
comparable to the greatest masters; such a spirit and address there appears in all that he touches, and especially
in that of the mezzotinto, of which we shall speak hereafter more at large, having first enumerated those incomparable gravings of that his new and inimitable style, in
both the great and little decollations of St. John the Baptist, the soldier holding a spear and leaning his hand on a
shield, the two Mary Magdalens, the old man’s head, that
of Titian, &c. after the same Titian, Georgion, and others.
We have also seen a plate etched by the present French
king, and other great persons; the right honourable the
earl of Sandwich, sometimes, as we are told, diverting
himself with the burine, and herein imitating those ancient
and renowned heroes, whose names are loud in the trumpet
of fame for their skill and particular affection to these arts.
For such of old were Lucius Manilius, and Fabius, noble
Romans, Pacuvius, the tragic poet, nephew to Ennius.
Socrates, the wisest of men, and Plato himself, Metrodorus and Pyrrhus the philosopher, did both desigii and
paint and so did Valentinian, Adrian, and Severus, emperors so as the great Paulus ^milius esteemed it of
such high importance, that he would needs have his son to
be instructed in it, as in one of the most worthy and excellent accomplishments belonging to a prince. For the
art of graving, Quintilian likewise celebrates Euphranor,
a polite and rarely endowed person; and Pliny, in that
chapter where he treats of the same art, observes that there
was never any one famous in it, but who was by birth or education a gentleman. Therefore he and Galen in their recension of the liberal arts, mention that of graving in particular,
amongst the most permanent; and in the same catalogue,
number it with rhetoric, geometry, logic, astronomy, yea, r
grammar itself, because there is in these arts, say they,
more of fancy and invention, than strength of hand, more
of the spirit than of the body. Hence Aristotle informs
us, that the Grecians did universally institute their children
in the art of painting and drawing, for an oeconomique
reason there signified, as well as to produce proportions in
the mind. Varro makes it part of the ladies 1 education,
that they might have the better skill in the works of
embroidery, &c. and for this cause is his daughter Martia
celebrated among those of her fair sex. We have already
mentioned the learned Anna Schurman; but the princess
Louisa has done wonders of this kind, and is famous
throughout Europe for the many pieces which enrich our
cabinets, examples sufficient to vindicate its dignity, and
the value that has been set upon it, since both emperors,
kings, and philosophers, the great and the wise, have not
disdained to cultivate and cherish this honourable quality
of old, so nobly reputed, that amongst the Greeks a slave
might not be taught it. How passionately does Pereskius,
that admirable and universal genius, deplore his want of
dexterity in this art Baptista Alberti, Aldus Pomponius,
Guaricus Durer, and Rubens, were politely learned and
knowing men, and it is hardly to be imagined of how great
use and conducible a competent address in this art of
drawing and designing is to the several advantages which
occur, and especially to the more noble mathematical
sciences, as we have already instanced in the lunary works
of Hevelius, and are no less obliged to celebrate some of
ur own countrymen famous for their dexterity in this incomparable art. Such was that Blagrave, who himself cut
those diagrams in his Mathematical Jewel; and such at
present is that rare and early prodigy of universal science,
Dr. Chr. Wren, our worthy and accomplished friend.
For, if the study of eloquence and rhetoric were cultivated
by the greatest geniuses and heroic persons which the
world has produced, and that, by the suffrage of the most
knowing, to be a perfect orator a man ought to be universally instructed, a quality so becoming and useful should
never be neglected.“In the sixth chapter he discourses
of the new way of engraving or mezzotinto, invented and
communicated by prince Rupert and he therein observes,
” that his highness did indulge him the liberty of publishing the whole manner and address of this new way of
engraving; but when I had well considered it, says he (so much having been already expressed, which may suffice to give the hint to all ingenious persons how it is to be performed), I did not think it necessary that an art so curious, and as yet so little vulgar, and which indeed does
not succeed where the workman is not an accomplished
designer, and has a competent talent in painting likewise,
was to be prostituted at so cheap a rate as the more naked
describing of it here would too soon have exposed it to.
Upon these considerations then, it is, that vvg leave it thus
enigmatical; and yet that this may appear no disingenuous
rhodomontade in me, or invidious excuse, I profess myself to be always most ready sub sigillo, and by his highness’s permission, to gratify any curious and worthy person with as full and perfect a demonstration of the entire
art as my talent and address will reach to, if what I am
now preparing to be reserved in the archives of the royal
society concerning it be not sufficiently instructive.“There
came, however, into the hands of the communicative and
learned Richard Micldleton Massey, M. D. and F. 11. S. the
original manuscript, written by Mr. Evelyn, and designed
for the royal society, entitled
” Prince Rupert’s new way
of engraving, communicated by his highness to Mr. Evelyn;“in the margin of which is this note:
” This I prepared to be registered in the royal society, but I have not
yet given it in, so as it still continues a secret.“In this
manuscript he first describes the two instruments employed
in this new manner of engraving, viz. the hatcher and the
style, and then proceeds to explain the method of using
them. He concludes with the following words:
” This
invention, or new manner of chalcography, was the result
of chance, and improved by a German soldier, who,
espying some scrape on the barrel of his musket, and being
of an ingenious spirit, refined upon it, till it produced the
effects you have seen, and which indeed is, for the delicacy thereof, much superior to anyinvention extant of
this art, for the imitation of those masterly drawings, and,
as the Italians call it, that morhidezza expressed in the best
of their designs. I have had the honour to be the first of
the English to whom it has been yet communicated, and
by a special indulgence of his highness, who with his own
hands was pleased to direct me with permission to publish
it to the world; but I have esteemed it a thing so curious,
that I thought it would be to profane it, before I had first
offered it to this illustrious society. There is another way
of engraving, by rowelling a plate with an instrument
made like that which our scriveners and clerks use to direct
their rulers by on parchment, only the points are thicker
set into the rowel. And when the plate is sufficiently
freckled with the frequent reciprocation of it, upon the
polished surface, so as to render the ground dark enough,
it is to be abated with the style, and treated as we have already described. Of this sort I have seen a head of the
queen Christina, graved, if I mistake not, as big as the
life, but not comparable to the mezzotinto of prince Rupert, so deservedly celebrated by J. Evelyn."
St. Evremond was a kind of epicurean philosopher; but though his speculative morality was too lax, yet in his
St. Evremond was a kind of epicurean philosopher; but
though his speculative morality was too lax, yet in his general conduct he appears to have acted like a man of probity. He preserved his health and his chearfulness to a
very great age. In one of his letters to Ninon de TEnclos
he says, “At eighty-eight years of age, I eat oysters
every morning. I dine heartily, and sup tolerably. Heroes are celebrated for less merit than mine.
” He was at
length afflicted with a strangury, which was attended with
great pain, and by which he was much weakened. Bayle
tells us, in one of his letters, that it was publicly known,
that St. Evremond used no assistance of minister or priest
to prepare him for death; and that it was said, that the
envoy from the court of Florence sent to him an ecclesiastic, who, asking him whether he would be reconciled,
received for answer, “With all my heart: I would fain be
reconciled to my stomach, which no longer performs in
usual functions.
” Bayle also says, “I have seen verses,
which he wrote fifteen days before his death; and his only
regret was, that he was reduced to boiled meats, and could
no longer digest partridges and pheasants.
” He died on
the 9th of Sept. 1703, aged ninety years, five months,
and twenty days. Des Maizeaux says, “He preserved, to
the very last, a lively imagination, a solid judgment, and
a happy memory. The great and acute pains, which he
felt during his sickness, never disturbed his tranquillity.
He bore them with a courage and constancy that may be
envied by philosophers of the first rate.
” The same writer
gives the following description of his person: “M. de St.
Evremond had blue, lively, and sparkling eyes, a large
forehead, thick eye-brows, a handsome mouth, and a sneering physiognomy. Twenty years before his death, a wen
grew between his eye-brows, which in time increased to a
considerable bigness. He once designed to have it cut oft;
but, as it was no ways troublesome to him, and he little
regarded that kind of deformity, Dr. Le Fevre advised him
to let it alone, lest such an operation should be attended
with dangerous symptoms in a man of his age. He would
often make merry with himself on account of his wen, his
great leather cap, and grey hair, which he chose to wear
rather than a periwig .
” Des Maizeaux afterwards adds,
“His behaviour was civil and engaging, his conversation
lively and pleasant, his repartees quick and happy. We
find very few that know how to read well. M. de St. Evre-p
mond told me one day, that he had not known three in
his whole life that could read justly. He had this art in
perfection; and, what is altogether as uncommon, he had
a very happy way of telling a story.
” “His humour was
ever gay and merry; which was so far from declining towards the latter end of his life, that it seemed rather to
gather fresh strength.
” “He was extremely fond of the
company of young people, and delighted to hear the stories
of their adventures.
” “Although he did not pretend to
over-rigid morals, yet he had all the qualities of a man of
honour. He was just, generous, and grateful; and full of
goodness and humanity.
”
mond also, drew his own character, in a letter to the count de Grammont. It is as follows: “He was a philosopher equally removed from superstition and from impiety a voluptuary,
St. Evremond also, drew his own character, in a letter to
the count de Grammont. It is as follows: “He was a
philosopher equally removed from superstition and from
impiety a voluptuary, who had no less aversion from debauchery than inclination for pleasure a man who had
never felt the pressure of indigence, and who had never
been in possession of affluence. He lived in a condition
despised by those who have every thing, envied by those
who have nothing, and relished by those who make their
reason the foundation of their happiness. When he was
young, he hated profusion, being persuaded that some
degree of wealth was necessary for the conveniences of a
long life. When he was old, he could hardly endure ceconomy; being of opinion, that want is little to be dreaded
when a man has but little time left to be miserable. He
was well pleased with nature, and did not complain of fortune. He hated vice, was indulgent to frailties, and lamented misfortunes. He sought not after the failings of
men with a design to expose them; he only found what
was ridiculous in them for his own amusement. He had a
secret pleasure in discovering this himself; and would,
indeed, have had a still greater in discovering this to others^
had he not been checked by discretion. Life, in his opinion, was too short to read all sorts of books, and to burden
one’s memory with a multitude of things at the expence
of one’s judgment. He did not apply himself to the most
learned writings, in order to acquire knowledge; but to
the most rational, to fortify his reason. He sometimes
chose the most delicate, to give delicacy to his own taste;
and sometimes the most agreeable, to give the same turn
to his own genius. It remains that he should be described
such as he was in friendship and in religion. In friendship he was more constant than a philosopher, and more
sincere than a young man of good nature without experience. With regard to religion, his piety consisted more
in justice and charity than in penance or mortification. He
placed his confidence in God, trusting in his goodness,
and hoping, that in the bosom of his providence, he should
find his repose and his felicity.
”
He was interred in Westminster- abbey, in the nave of
the church near the cloister, where a monument was erected to his memory by his friends, with an inscription, in
which he is highly praised. It is said to have been written
by Dr. Garth. Dr. Atterbury, who looked on St. Evreniond as an infidel, appears to have had objections to his
being buried in the abbey, for which he is reflected upon,
with petulant malignity, by one of the editors of the last
edition of the Biographia Brttannica.
uct him, and on hig death-bed recommended him to the care of Valentine Albert, an eminent divine and philosopher, who employed, as his first master, Wenceslau* Buhl, whom Mayer
, one of the most eminenjt
and laborious scholars of his time in Europe, was descended
both by the father’s and mother’s side from a family originally of Holstein. His father, Werner Fabricius, a native
of Itzhoa, in Holstein, was director of the music at St.Paul'p
in Leipsic, organist of the church of St. Nicholas in that
city, and a poet and a man of letters, as appears by a work
be published in 1657, entitled “Delicias Harmonicas.
”
His mother was Martha Corthum, the daughter of John
Corthum, a clergyman of Bergedorff, and the descendant
of a series of protestant clergymen from the time of the
reformation. He was born at Leipsic Nov. 11, 1668. His
mother died in 1674, and his father in 1679; but the latter, while he lived, had begun to instruct him, and on hig
death-bed recommended him to the care of Valentine
Albert, an eminent divine and philosopher, who employed,
as his first master, Wenceslau* Buhl, whom Mayer calls
the common Msecenas of orphans; and he appears to have
been taught by him for about five years. He also received
instructions at the same time under Jo. Goth. Herrichius,
rector of the Nicolaitan school at Leipsic, an able Greek
and Latin scholar, whose services Fabricius amply acknowledges in the preface to Herrichius’s “Poemata Graeca et
Latina,
” which he published in Adversaria,
” and the first edition of Morhoff’s “Polyhistor,
” which he himself informs us, gave the first direction to his mind as to that species of literary history and
research which he afterwards carried beyond all his predecessors, and in which, if we regard the extent and accuracy
of his labours, he has never had an equal. Schmidt had
accidentally shown him Barthius^, and requested him to
look into it; but it seemed to open to him such a wide
field of instruction and pleasure, that he requested to take
it to his room and study it at leisure, and from this he conceived the first thought, although, perhaps, at that timfe,
indistinct, of his celebrated Bibliothecas. After his return,
to Leipsic in 1686, he met with Morhoff, who, he says,
gave his new-formed inclination an additional spur. He
now was matriculated in the college of Leipsic, and was
entirely under the care of his guardian Valentine Albert,
one of the professors, with whom he lodged for seven years.
During this time he attended the lectures of Carpzovius,
Olearius, Feller, Rechenberg, Ittigius, Menckenius, &c.
and other learned professors, and acknowledges hisobligations in particular to Ittigius, who introduced him to a
knowledge of the Christian fathers, and of ecclesiastical
history. It is perhaps unnecessary to add of one who has
given such striking proofs of the fact, that his application
to his various studies was incessant and successful. His
reading was various and extensive, and, like most scholars
of his class, he read with a pen in his hand.
irst letter of his Travels, dated September 1685, speaks of him as an incomparable mathematician and philosopher, who, though only twenty-one years old, was already become one
, a man of
considerable learning, but unfortunately connected with
the French prophets, was a native of Switzerland, whither
his family, originally Italians, were obliged to take refuge,
for religion’s sake, in the beginning of the reformation.
He was born Feb. 16, 1664. His father intending him for
the study of divinity, he was regularly instructed in Greek
and Latin, philosophy, mathematics, and astronomy; learned a little of the Hebrew tongue, and began to attend the
lectures of the divinity professors of Geneva: but his mother being averse to this, he was left to pursue his own
course, and appears to have produced the first fruits of his
studies in some letters on subjects of astronomy sent to Cassini, the French king’s astronomer. In 1682 he went to
Paris, where Cassini received him very kindly. In the
following year he returned to Geneva, where he became
particularly acquainted with a count Fenil, who formed the
design of seizing, if not assassinating the prince of Orange,
afterwards William III. This design Faccio having learned
from him communicated it to bishop Burnet about 1686,
who of course imparted it to the prince. Bishop Burnet,
in the first letter of his Travels, dated September 1685,
speaks of him as an incomparable mathematician and philosopher, who, though only twenty-one years old, was
already become one of the greatest men of his age, and
seemed born to carry learning some sizes beyond what it
had hitherto attained. Whilst Dr. Calamy studied at the
university of Utrecht, Faccio resided in that city as tutor
to two young gentlemen, Mr. Ellys and Mr. Thornton, and
conversed freely with the English. At this time he was
generally esteemed to be a Spinozist; and his discourse,
says Dr. Calamy, very much looked that way. Afterwards,
it is probable, that he was professor of mathematics at
Geneva. In 1687 he came into England, and was honoured
with the friendship of the most eminent mathematicians of
that age. Sir Isaac Newton, in particular, was intimately
acquainted with him. Dr. Johnstone of Kidderminster had
in his possession a manuscript, written by Faccio, containing
commentaries and illustrations of different parts of sir
Isaac’s Principia. About 1704 he taught mathematics in
Spitafnelds, and obtained about that time a patent fora
species of jewel-watches. When he unfortunately attached
himself to the new prophets, he became their chief secretary, and committed their warnings to writing, many of
which were published. The connexion of such a man with
these enthusiasts, and their being supported, likewise, by
another person of reputed abilities, Maximilian Misson, a
French refugee, occasioned a suspicion, though without
reason, that there was some deep contrivance and design
in the affair. On the second of December, 1707, Faccio
stood in the pillory at Charing-cross, with the following
words affixed to his hat: “Nicolas Fatio, convicted for
abetting and favouring Elias Marion, in his wicked and
counterfeit prophecies, and causing them to be printed and
published, to terrify the queen’s people.
” Nearly at the
same time, alike sentence was executed upon Elias Marion,
one of the pretended prophets, and John d'Ande, another
of their abettors. This mode of treatment did not convince
Faccio of his error; and, indeed, the delusion of a man of
such abilities, and simplicity of manners, was rather an
object of compassion than of public infamy and punishment. Oppressed with the derision and contempt thrown
upon himself and his party, he retired at last into the
country, and spent the remainder of a long life in silence
and obscurity. He died at Worcester in 1753, about eightynine years old. When he became the dupe of fanaticism,
he seems to have given up his philosophical studies and
connections. Faccio, besides being deeply versed in all
branches of mathematical literature, was a great proficient
in the learned and oriental languages. He had read much,
also, in books of alchymy. To the last, he continued a
firm believer in the reality of the inspiration of the French
prophets. Dr. Wall of Worcester, who was well acquainted
with him, communicated many of the above particulars to
Dr. Johnstone, in whose hands were several of Faccio’s fanatical manuscripts and journals; and one of his letters
giving an account of count Fenil’s conspiracy, and some
particulars of the author’s family was communicated to the
late Mr. Seward, and published in the second volume of
his Anecdotes. In the Republic of Letters, vol. I. we find
a Latin poem by Faccio, in honour of sir Isaac Newton; and
in vol. XVIII. a communication on the rules of the ancient
Hebrew poesy, on which subject he appears to have corresponded with Whiston. There are also many of his original papers and letters in the British Museum; and among
them a Latin poem, entitled “N. Facii Duellerii Auriacus
Throno-Servatus,
” in which he claims to himself the merit
of having saved king William from the above-mentioned
conspiracy.
and, in Spain, under Fabius Maximus Servilianus. He was the disciple of Panetius, a celebrated stoic philosopher; married the youngest daughter of Lelius, and wrote some annals,
, surnamed Strabo, was consul at Rome in 161 B. C. with Valerius Messala. The law called Fannia was made during his consulate, for regulating the expences of feasts, and empowering the pretors to drive the rhetoricians and philosophers from Rome. This law prohibited more than ten asses to be spent at a common feast, and an hundred at the most solemn, such as those of the Saturnalia, or of the public games; which seems almost incredible, when it is considered that a sheep at that time cost ten asses, and an ox an hundred, according to the opinion of several learned men. Caius Fannius, his son, distinguished himself by his eloquence, and was consul 120 B. C. He opposed the enterprizes of Caius Gracchus, and made a speech against him, which is praised by Cicero. Caius Fannius, cousin-german of this latter, was questor 139 B. C. and pretor ten years after; served under Scipio Africanus the younger in Africa; and, in Spain, under Fabius Maximus Servilianus. He was the disciple of Panetius, a celebrated stoic philosopher; married the youngest daughter of Lelius, and wrote some annals, which are much praised by Cicero.
hich he met with in his progress; and even his dress and manner, we are told, were rather those of a philosopher than of a courtier. Besides his History of Portugal, already
, one of the most celebrated historians and poets of his nation in the seventeenth
century, was born March 18, 1590, at Sonto near Caravilla in Portugal, of a noble family, both by his father’s
and mother’s side. His father’s name was Arnador Perez
d'Eiro, and his mother’s Louisa Faria, but authors are not
agreed in their conjectures why he did not take his father’s
name, but preferred Faria, that of his mother, and Sousa,
which is thought to have been his grandmother’s name.
In his infancy he was very infirm, yet made considerable
progress, even when a puny child, in writing, drawing, and
painting. At the age of ten, his father sent him to school
to learn Latin, in which his proficiency by no means answered his expectations, owing to the boy’s giving the preference to the Portuguese and Spanish poets. These he
read incessantly, and composed several pieces in verse and
prose in both languages, but he had afterwards the good
sense to destroy his premature effusions, as well as to perceive that the Greek and Roman classics are the foundation
of a true style, and accordingly he endeavoured to repair
his error by a careful study of them. In 1604, when only
in his fourteenth year, he was received in the Tank of gentleman into the household of don Gonzalez de Moraes,
bishop of Porto, who was his relation, and afterwards made
him his secretary; and during his residence with this prelate, which lasted ten years, he applied himself indefatigably to his studies, and composed some works, the best
of which was an abridgment of the historians of Portugal,
“Epitome de las historias Portuguesas, desde il diluyio
hasta el anno 1628,
” Madrid, Noches claras,
” a collection of moral and political discourses, Madrid, 1623 and 1626, 2 vols. 12mo. 2.
“Fuente de Aganipr, o Rimes varias,
” a collection of his
poems, in 7 vols. Madrid, 1644, &c. 3. “Commentarios
sobra las Lusiadas de Luis de Camoens,
” an immense
commentary on the Lusiad, ibid. Madrid, 1640 or 1645, folio. 5.
” Imperio de la China, &e.“and an account of the propagation of religion by the Jeuits, written by Semedo: Faria was only editor of this
work, Madrid, 1643, 4to. 6.
” Nobiliario del Concle D.
Petro de Barcelos,“&c. a translation from the Portuguese,
with notes, ibid. 1646, folio. 7.
” A Life of Don Martin
Bapt. de Lanuza,“grand justiciary of Arragon,
” ibid. 1650,
4to. 8. “Asia Portuguesa,
” Lisbon, Europa Portuguesa,
” ibid. Africa Portuguesa,
” ibid. America Portuguesa.
” All these" historical and geographical works have been considered as correct and valuable. Faria appears to have published some
other pieces of less importance, noticed by Antonio.
t has been ascribed to the quakers, another question in return. He appears, however, to have been no philosopher, for we are told that it was probably some feeling of his last
As to his general character, we are told that he was particularly excellent in the pulpit, and that his sermons were rational, spiritual, evangelical, and not unfrequcntly pathetic; that he had an admirable talent, without trimming, of pleasing persons of very different sentiments, and that when he was speaking of the doctrines of the gospel, there was a swell in his language that looked as if he was rising to a greater degree of orthodoxy* in expression than some persons might approve; but it never cam6 to that point. In conversation he was lively and brilliant to an uncommon degree; and, like Doddridge, he sometimes went far enough in his complimentary language to persons present. He was likewise very backward in readily declaring his sentiments, when asked them, concerning particular topics, living writers, or recent publications. Any question of this kind not un frequently produced from him, what has been ascribed to the quakers, another question in return. He appears, however, to have been no philosopher, for we are told that it was probably some feeling of his last work’s not having met with the attention he expected, which dictated the order concerning the burning of his manuscripts. He had great generosity of disposition, and in his distributions to charitable designs and objects went to the utmost extent of his property.
tered a student in Merton college, in 1568, under the tuition of John Potts, whom Wood calls a noted philosopher. In 1570, Potts, who was a concealed papist, being detected,
,
an English Jesuit, was born in 1554, at Foston in Leicestershire, and entered a student in Merton college, in 1568,
under the tuition of John Potts, whom Wood calls a noted
philosopher. In 1570, Potts, who was a concealed papist,
being detected, conducted his young pupil, whose parents
were of that persuasion, to the Jesuits’ college at Louvain.
In this seminary he continued till he had taken a bachelor
of arts degree, and then went to Paris. From thence he
travelled to Munich in Bavaria, where duke William allowed him a handsome salary to prosecute his studies, and
Ivhere he took the degree of M. A. In 1575 he proceeded
to Rome, and became a member of the English Jesuits’
college, of which he was soon after appointed divinityreader. He was much distinguished and favoured by several princes, and particularly by pope Gregory XIII. who,
as a token of his affection and confidence, gave him a seal
which empowered him to grant a pass to any of his countrymen travelling through the catholic dominions. In 1581
he was appointed president of the Jesuits’ college at Posna
in Poland, in which country he spent the remainder of his
life. He died at Ulna, in the province of Lithuania, Feb.
18, 1591, much regretted by his fraternity, amongst whom
he had the character of a prudent, learned, and ^pious divine. His works are: 1. “.De Christi in terris ecclesia,
”
Posna, 1584, 4to. 2. “Contra Antonium Sadeelem Calv:nistam, libri III.
” 3. “Theses de variis fidei eontroversiis,
”
Posna, Doctrina catholica de Sanctorum
Invocatione, &c.
” ibid. Apologia Libri
sui de Invocatione, &c. contra Danielem Tossanum,
” Colon.
Coenae Lutherana? et Calvinistee oppu<rnatio,
” Posna, Apologia Thesium de CcBUtt
Lutherana, &o.
” ibid. Oratio de causis
Haeresis, &c.
” 9. “Tractatus de Controversiis inter ordinem Eccles. et Secularem in Polonia,
”
, an ancient philosopher and orator, was born at Aries in Gaul, flourished under the
, an ancient philosopher and orator, was
born at Aries in Gaul, flourished under the emperor Adrian,
in the second century, and taught both at Athens and
Home with high reputation. Adrian had no kindness for
him; for such was the nature and temper of this emperor,
that, not content with being the first in dignity and power,
he would needs be the first in every thing else. This pedantic affectation led him, as Spartian relates, to deride, to
contemn, to trample upon the professors of all arts and
sciences, whom he took a pleasure in contradicting upon
all occasions, right or wrong. Thus one day he reproved
Favorinus, with an air of great superiority, for using a
certain word; which, however, was a good word, and frequently used by the best authors. Favorinus submitted
patiently to the emperor, without making any reply, though
he knew himself to be perfectly right: which when his
friends objected to, “Shall not I easily suffer him,
” says
he, “to be the most learned of all men, who has thirty
legions at his command
” This philosopher is said to
have wondered at three things first, that being a Gaul he
should speak Greek so well; secondly, that being an
eunuch he should be accused of adultery; and thirdly,
that being envied and hated by the emperor he should be
permitted to live. Many works are attributed to him;
among the rest a Greek work of “Miscellaneous History,
”
often quoted by Diogenes Lærtius, but none of them are
now extant.
his life in his diocese, in a manner worthy of a good archbishop, a man of letters, and a Christian philosopher. The amiableness of his manners and character obtained for him
Fenelon passed the last years of his life in his diocese, in a manner worthy of a good archbishop, a man of letters, and a Christian philosopher. The amiableness of his manners and character obtained for him a respect, which was paid even by the enemies of his country; for in the last war with Louis XIV. the duke of Marlborough expressly ordered the lands of Fenelon to be spared. He died in January 1715, at the age of sixty-three.
, an eminent experimental philosopher, mechanist, and astronomer, was born in Bamffshire, in Scotland,
, an eminent experimental philosopher, mechanist, and astronomer, was born in Bamffshire, in Scotland, 1710, of very poor parents. At the very earliest age his extraordinary genius began to unfold itself. He first learned to read, by overhearing his father teach his elder brother: and he had made this acquisition before any one suspected it. He soon discovered a peculiar taste for mechanics, which first arose on seeing his father use a lever. He pursued this study a considerable length, while he was yet very young; and made a watch in wood-work, from having once seen one. As he ha'd at first no instructor, nor any help from books, every thing he learned had all the merit of an original discovery; and such, with inexpressible joy, he believed it to be.
, a Franciscan friar, of the order of minims, celebrated as a botanist and natural philosopher, was born at Majie in Provence, in 1660. He first visited Cartbagena
, a Franciscan friar, of the order of minims, celebrated as a botanist and natural philosopher, was born at Majie in Provence, in 1660. He first visited Cartbagena and Martinico, in 1703 and 1704, and afterwards travelled to the western coast of South America, investigating the natural productions of New Spain and the neighbouring islands, from 1707 to 1712. All these voyages he accomplished under the patronage of Louis XIV. by whom he was liberally pensioned, and who caused an observatory to be built for him at Marseilles, in which town Feuillee, worn out with his labours, died in 1732. He is said to have been of that modest simple character, which best becomes an ecclesiastic and a true philosopher, except perhaps 'in his resentment against Monsieur Frezier, a rival philosopher and naturalist, sent out likewise by Louis XIV. whom he criticises at some length, in a rather contemptuous style, in the preface to the Journal of one of his voyages.
design.” Voltaire,' if he may be credited, which requires no small degree of caution, says he was a philosopher rather than a Hugonot, and despised the Calvinists though he
, or Tanaquil Faber, a very
learned man, father of madame Dacier, was born at Caen
in Normandy in 1615. His father determined to educate
him to learning, at the desire of one of his brothers, who
was an ecclesiastic, and who promised to take him into his
Jiouse under his own care. He had a genius for music,
and early became accomplished in it but his uncle proved
too severe a preceptor in languages he therefore studied
Latin with a tutor at home, and acquired the knowledge of
Greek by his own efforts. The Jesuits at the college of
La Fleche were desirous to detain him among them, and
his father would have persuaded him to take orders, but he
resisted both. Having continued some years in Normandy,
he went to Paris; where, by his abilities, learning, and
address, he gained the friendship of persons of the highest
distinction. M. de Noyers recommended him to cardinal
Ue Richelieu, who settled on him a pension of 2000 livres,
to inspect all the works printed at the Louvre. The cardinal designed to have made him principal of the college
which he was about to erect at Richelieu, and to settle on
him a farther stipend: but he died, and Mazarine, who
succeeded, not giving the same encouragement to learning,
the Louvre press became almost useless, and Faber’s pension was very ill paid. His hopes being thus at an end, he
quitted his employment; yet continued some years at
Pans, -pursuing his studies, and publishing various works.
Some years after he declared himself a protestant, and
became a professor in the university of Saumur; which
place he accepted, preferably to the professorship of Greek
at Nimeguen, to which he was invited at the same time.
His great merit and character soon drew to him from all
parts of the kingdom, and even from foreign countries,
numbers of scholars, some of whom boarded at his house.
He had afterwards a contest with the university and consistory of Saumur, on account of having, unguardedly and
absurdly, asserted in one of his works, that he could pardon Sappho’s passion for those of her own sex, since it
had inspired her with so beautiful an ode upon that subject.
Upon this dispute he would have resigned his place, if he
could have procured one elsewhere: and at last, in 1672,
he was invited upon advantageous terms to the university of
Heidelberg, to which he was preparing to remove, when
he was seized with a fever, of which he died Sept. 12,
1672. He left a son of his own name, author of a small
tract “De futilitate Poetices,
” printed he had
almost persuaded Faber to reconcile himself to the church
of Rome,
” from which he had formerly deserted; “and
that Faber signified to him his resolution to do so, in a
letter written a few months before his death, which prevented him from executing his design.
” Voltaire,' if he
may be credited, which requires no small degree of caution, says he was a philosopher rather than a Hugonot, and
despised the Calvinists though he lived among them.
As a philosopher, much cannot now be said in favour of Ficinus, and the high
As a philosopher, much cannot now be said in favour of
Ficinus, and the high encomiums to which he appeared
entitled in the fifteenth century, will not all bear the test
of modern criticism. His works afford abundant proofs
how deeply he was influenced by the reveries of judicial
astrology. His principal want was vigour and accuracy of
judgment, with which if he had been furnished, he would
have avoided the superstitious attachment manifested by
him to the “Platonismus Alexandrinus,
” than which, Brucker observes, no philosophical reveries could possibly be
more ridiculous; and he would have evinced more sagacity
in detecting the sophisms of this sect. He was devoid also
of the more splendid and exterior graces of a well cultivated understanding; his style is pronounced inelegant,
and his language confused. He was a Platonist even in
his correspondence, and some of his letters are enigmatical
and mysterious. Brucker also accuses him of being of a
timid and servile spirit, which would naturally lead him to
accommodate his version to the judgment of his patron.
He entertained the notion which prevailed among the
Christian fathers, that the doctrine of Plato was, in some
sort, of divine origin, and might be fairly construed into a
perfect agreement with that of divine revelation. From
these causes, Ficinus is very far from adhering with strictness to his author’s meaning; in many instances he rather
expresses his own cpnceptions than those of Plato, and
often gives his interpretation a bias towards the A lexandrian or Christian doctrine, for which he has no sufficient
authority in the original. On the whole, Brucker is of
opinion, that Ficinus was rather an industrious than a judicious translator, and that his version of Plato should be
read with caution. The chief part of his works are contained in the Paris edition of 1641, in 2 vols, folio, amongst
which those of most merit are the versions of Plato and
Plotinus. Of some of his works there are very early editions, now of great rarity.
y, though a zealous divine of the Romish church, was by no means a bigot. He has the reputation of a philosopher as well as a divine, and a philosopher in practice as well as
Fleury, though a zealous divine of the Romish church, was by no means a bigot. He has the reputation of a philosopher as well as a divine, and a philosopher in practice as well as speculation. He is said to have taken an extreme delight in reading Plato; and, after the example of this great ancient, would often have private conferences with societies of the learned, which chiefly turned on the illustration of the scriptures. He was a great lover of solitude, yet was not reserved, but would speak his mind freely upon the most important and even delicate subjects. Constantly attentive to, and punctual in the discharge of his duty, he took no steps to be rich or great, cherished no principles of ambition, but preferred the glory of doing useful services to his country, to any honours which his uncommon talents and merit might justly have claimed.
, or de Fluctibus, an English philosopher, was the son of sir Thomas Fludd, knight, sometime treasurer
, or de Fluctibus, an English philosopher, was the son of sir Thomas Fludd, knight, sometime treasurer of war to queen Elizabeth in France and the
Low Countries; and was born at Milgate, in the parish of
Bearsted, in Kent, in 1574. He was admitted of St.
John’s-college, Oxford, in 1591; and having taken both
the degrees in arts, applied himself to physic. He then
spent six years in travelling through France, Spain, Italy,
and Germany: in most of which countries he not only became acquainted with several of the nobility, but read
lectures to them. After his return, being in high repute
for his chemical knowledge, he accumulated the degrees
of bachelor and doctor of physic. This was in 1605;
about which time he practised in London, and became fellow of the college of physicians. He did not begin to
publish till 1616, but afterwards became a voluminous
writer, being the author of about twenty works, mostly
written in Latin, and as dark and mysterious in their language, as in their matter. Some of his productions were
aimed against Kepler and Mersennus; and he had the
honour of replies from both those philosophers. He wrote
two books against Mersennus; the first entitled “Sophias
cum Moria certamen, in quo lapis Lydius, a falso structore
Patre Marino Mersenno Monacho reprobatus, celeberrima
voluminis sui Babylonici in Genesim figmenta accuratæ
examinat.
” Franc. Summum
Bonorum, quod est verum Magiae, Cabalae, Alchymije,
Fratrum Roseug Crucis Verorum, subjectum: in dictarum
scientiarum laudem, in insignis calumniatoris Fr. Mar.
Mersenni dedecus publicatum, per Joachim. Frizium,
”
Sophiae cum Moria certamen
”
and the third against “Summum Bonorum,
” &c. This
answer, called “Examen Fluddanae Philosophise,
” is
dated Feb. 4, 1629, and is printed in the third volume of
Gassendus’s works in folio. In the dedication to Merseniius, this antagonist fairly allows Fludd the merit of extensive learning. His other works were: 1. “Utriusque
Cosmi, majoris et minoris, Technica Historia,
” Oppenheim, Tractatus Apologeticus integritatena societatis de Rosea cruce defendens,
”
Leyden, Monochordon mundi symphoniacum,
eu Replicatio ad Apologiam Joannis Kepleri,
” Francfort,
Anatomise Theatrum triplici effigie designatum,
” ibid. Philosophia Sacra et vere Christiana, seu Meteorologia Cosmica,
” ibid, Mediclna Cathotica, sen, Mysticum artis Medicandi Sacrarium,
” ibid. Integrum Morborum Mysterium,
”
ibid. De Morborum Signis,
” ibid. Clavis Philosophise et Alchyrniae Fluddanse,
” ibid.
Philosophia Mosa'ica,
” Goudae, Pathologia Daemoniaca,
” ibid.
So peculiar was this philosopher’s turn of mind, that there was nothing which ancient or modern
So peculiar was this philosopher’s turn of mind, that
there was nothing which ancient or modern times could
afford, under the notion of occult wisdom, which he did
not eagerly gather into his magazine of science. All the
mysterious and incomprehensible dreams of the Cabbalists
and Paracelsians, he compounded into a new mass of absurdity. In hopes of improving the medical and chemical
arts, he devised a new system of physics, loaded with wonderful hypothesis, and mystical fictions. He supposed
two universal principles, the northern or condensing power,
and the southern, or rarefying power. Over these he
placed innumerable intelligences and geniuses, and called
together whole troops of spirits from the four winds, to
whom he committed the charge of diseases. He applied
his thermometer to discover the harmony between the macrocosm and the microcosm, or the world of nature and of
man he introduced many marvellous fictions into natural
philosophy and medicine he attempted to explain the
Mosaic cosmogony, in a work entitled “Philosophia Mosaica,
” wherein he speaks of three first principles, darkness, as the first matter; water, as the second matter;
and the divine light, as the most central essence, creating,
informing, vivifying all things of secondary principles,
two active, cold and heat and two passive, moisture and
dryness and describes the whole mystery of production
and corruption, of regeneration and resurrection, with
such vague conceptions and obscure language, as leaves
the subject involved in impenetrable darkness. Some of
his ideas, such as they were, appear to have been borrowed
from the Cabbalists and Alexandrian Platonists. The reader will easily judge, what kind of light may be expected
from the writings of Robert Fludd, when he is informed
that he ascribes the magnetic virtue to the irradiation of
angels. Fludd died at his house in Coleman-street, London, in 1637, and was sent to Bearsted for interment.
ment, but this does not appear to have been the case. He submitted, however, to his sentence, like a philosopher, and applied his leisure to the cultivation of his mind. He
, a learned Genoese, was born in that city in 1518, and descended from
a noble family. Some writers have styled him a priest,
but we do not find him in any of his writings assuming any
other title than that of a Genoese noble. The troubles
which agitated his country induced him to write a work
by which they might be quieted, the subject of which
was the distinction between noble and plebeian families;
but he took so many liberties with the characters of the
nobles, that they procured his banishment, a treatment
which suggested to him as his future device, a lighted
tiambeau with the inscription “Officio mihi officio.
”
Moreri says that he took an active part in the troubles at Genoa, which was the cause of his banishment, but this does
not appear to have been the case. He submitted, however, to his sentence, like a philosopher, and applied his
leisure to the cultivation of his mind. He chose Rome as
the place of his retirement, and there acquired the patronage of Hippolyto cardinal d'Este, who received him
into his house, where he died in 1581. His works were
numerous, of which the following are the chief: 1. “Historia Genuensium, lib. 12.
” L535, folio; diffuse, but faithful and elegant; translated into Italian by Francesco Sardonati. 2i “De ratione scribendae HistQrise.
” 3. “Conjuratio Johannis Ludovici Flisci,
” Neapoli, Elogia clarorurn Ligurum,
” De Linguae Latinae usu et prsestantia,
” Romse,
De causis magnitudinis Turcarum imperil.
”
7. “Delia Republica di Genoa,
” 8vo. 8. “Opuscula nonnulla,
”
and this in five weeks’ time carried him oHF.” He was,“says M. Freron,” born a sentimental person; a philosopher in conduct as well as in principle; exempt from ambitton and
, a French
critic, was born of a good family at Rouen, in 1685. At
fifteen, he entered into the society of the Jesuits; and,
at thirty, quitted it for the sake of returning to the world.
He was a pnest, and had a cure in Normandy; but left it,
and resided for some time in the character of a man of wit
and letters, with the cardinal d'Auvergne. Having obtained some reputation at Paris by certain critical productions, the abbe“Bignon, in 1724, committed to him the
editorship of the
” Journal des Scavans.“He acquitted
himself well in this department, and was peaceably enjoying
the applauses of the public, when in 1725 the enemies
whom by critical strictures in his Journal he had created,
formed an accusation against him of a most abominable
crime, and procured him to be imprisoned. By the credit
of powerful friends, he was set at liberty in fifteen days;
the magistrate of the police took himself the trouble of
justifying him in a letter to the abbe Bignon; and this letter having been read amidst his fellow-labourers in the
Journal, he was unanimously re-established in his former
credit. But with whatever reputation he might acquit
himself in his Journal, his frequent quarrels interrupted
his labours, which, however, he employed on some newperiodical works, from which he derived his greatest fame.
In 1731, he began one under the title of
” Nouveliiste du
Parnasse, ou Reflexions sur les ouvrages nouveanx,“but
proceeded only to two volumes; the work having been
suppressed by authority, from the incessant complaints of
authors who were there ridiculed. About three years after,
in 1735, he obtained a new privilege for a periodical production, entitled
” Observations sur les Ecrits Modernes;“whk:h, after being continued to thirty-three volumes, was
suppressed also in 1743. Yet the year following, 1744,
he published another weekly paper, called
” Jugemens
sur les ouvrages nouveaux,“and proceeded to eleven volumes; the two last being done by other hands. Fontaines
could go no farther: for, in 1745, he was attacked with a
disorder in the breast, which ended in a dropsy, and this
in five weeks’ time carried him oHF.
” He was,“says M.
Freron,
” born a sentimental person; a philosopher in
conduct as well as in principle; exempt from ambitton
and of a noble firm spirit, which would not submit to sue
for preferments or titles. In common conversation he appeared only an ordinary man, but when subjects of
literature or any thing out of the common way were agitated,
he discovered great force of imagination and wit."
of giving great matters in a small compass; at others he der scends to puerile details unworthy of a philosopher. Ke displays occasionally too much refinement in his ideas;
This great author died in January 1757, without ever
having had any violent disorder, or felt any of the maladies of age till he was turned of ninety, after which he was
a little deaf, and his eyes in some degree failed. The
tranquil ease Of his temper is thought to have contributed to
extend his life to this unusual period. A fuller account of
hi* works will doubtless be required, which we shall give
in chronological order. I. Letters of “the Chav. d'Horny
”[??] Discourses
on the Plurality of Worlds,
” 1686; the character of this
performance has been already sketched, as well as that of
his, 3. “History of Oracles,
” Pastoral Poems,
with a Discourse on the Eclogue, and a digression on the
ancients and moderns,
” Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences,
” to which society he was secretary fortytwo years, from 1699. The general preface to this work
is highly excellent; it contains also his “Eloges,
” or Eulogies on the academicians, which have been published
separately. 6. “History of the French Theatre, to Corneille,
” with the life of that great Dramatist. 7. “Reflections on theatrical poetry, particularly Tragedy:
” this is
reckoned one of the most profound and judicious works of
Fontenelle. 8. “Elements of the Geometry of Infinites,
”
A
Tragedy,
” in prose, and “Six Comedies,
” none of them
calculated for theatrical effect. Warburton, it appears by
his letters to bishop Hurd, entertained a high opinion of
these comedies, and of Fontenelle’s preface to them. 10.
“Theory of the Cartesian Vortices.
” He remained unfortunately attached to the system of Descartes to the end
of his life, having imbibed it very early. 11.“Endymion,
”
and some other pastoral lyric dramas. 12. “Moral Discourses,
” and fugitive pieces. All these, except those on
geometry and natural history, were collected in 11 vols,
12mo, under the title “Œuvres Diverses.
” Other editions have since been published in folio and quarto. The
style of this author is in general elegant and clear, but
not altogether free from defects. It is often too negligent
and familiar. He betrays at some times an affectation of
giving great matters in a small compass; at others he der
scends to puerile details unworthy of a philosopher. Ke
displays occasionally too much refinement in his ideas;
and, at times, is too elaborate in his ornaments. These
defects are less offensive in the writings of Fontenelle, than
they would be in any others; not only because they are
overpowered by many striking beauties of various kinds,
but because it is easy to perceive that they are truly natural
to the author.
1, and if we may believe Lilly, predicted his death on that day. He wrote a great many books, on the philosopher’s stone, magic, astronomy, natural history, and natural philosophy,
Hitherto we have seen onjy the laudable efforts of a
young man to overcome the difficulties of adverse fortune.
In what follows he is less entitled to respect. He now applied himself to the study of physic and astrology, and
after having travelled to Holland for that purpose, set up
in Philpot-lane, London, where his practice being opposed by the physicians, and himself four times fined and
imprisoned, he went to study at Cambridge, where he
took a doctor’s degree, and a licence to practise; and
settling at Lambeth, openly professed the joint occupation
of physician and astrologer. “Here he lived,
” says Lilly,
“with good respect of the neighbourhood, being very
charitable to the poor, and was very judicious and fortunate in horary questions and sicknesses.
” His charity to
the poor, however, was not wholly disinterested. Quacks
of this description are generally well repaid for their charity by the good report of the poor, wh.o are illiterate and
credulous. In 1601 a complaint was made to Whitgift,
archbishop of Canterbury, against him for deluding the
people, but it does not appear what steps were taken
against him. In the mean time he was much resorted to
by all ranks of people; among others the famous, or rather infamous, countess of Essex, applied to him for his
assistance in her wicked designs, as appeared by the trials
of that lady and of Mrs. Anne Turner, for the murder of
sir Thomas Overbury. He died suddenly in a boat on the
Thames, Sept. 12, 1611, and if we may believe Lilly,
predicted his death on that day. He wrote a great many
books, on the philosopher’s stone, magic, astronomy, natural history, and natural philosophy, two treatises on the
plague, and some religious tracts, of which Anthony Wood
has given a catalogue from the Ashmolean museum, where
his Mss. were deposited, but it seems doubtful whether
any of them were printed. There are also some of his Mss.
on astrology in the British Museum. He was a man of
considerable learning in all the above sciences, as they
were then understood, but seems to have been either an
egregious dupe, or unprincipled impostor, in the use he
made of his knowledge.
known than he deserves. He was intimate with the poet J. Baptiste Rousseau, and lived the life of a philosopher, preferring letters to fortune, and friendship to every thing.
, nephew of the former, and
also the son of a goldsmith, was born at Paris in 1658.
He became lord of Aubigny by purchasing the lands to
which that title was attached. He was successively secretary to the marquis de Crequi, and the duke d'Aumont.
When the former of these noblemen was slain at the battle
of Luzara, La Fosse was employed to carry his heart to
Paris, and celebrated the death of the young hero in verses
which are still extant. He was so much a master of Italian
as to write skilfully in that language both in prose and
verse, but his chief fame as a poet was atchieved in his
own language, in which he wrote several tragedies, and
many other poems. His ft Polixene, Manlius, and Theseus,“published in his
” Theatre,“2 vols. 12mo, maintained their station in the French theatre till the revolution; and all his dramas are said to abound with passages
which would not disgrace the finest tragic writers of France.
His versification was highly finished, and he said that the
expression cost him more than the thoughts. His
” Manlius," the best of his pieces, has been pronounced in many
respects worthy of Corneille; yet even in France, we are
told, he is less known than he deserves. He was intimate
with the poet J. Baptiste Rousseau, and lived the life of a
philosopher, preferring letters to fortune, and friendship
to every thing. He died Nov. 2, 1708, at the age of
fifty. His modesty was equal to his genius; and when any
of his pieces were less successful than others, he professed
constantly that he never appealed from the judgment of
the public.
me eminently skilled, not only in the belles lettres, but in all arts and sciences. He was a poet, a philosopher, a physician, an astronomer, and a mathematician. He was a man
an eminent Italian poet and physician, was born at Verona in 1483. Two singularities are related of him in his infancy; one, that his lips adhered so closely to each other when he came into the world, that a surgeon was obliged to divide them with his knife; the other, that his mother, Camilla Mascarellia, was killed by lightning, while he, though in her arms at the very moment, escaped unhurt. Fracastorio was of parts so exquisite, and made so wonderful a progress in every thing he undertook, that he became eminently skilled, not only in the belles lettres, but in all arts and sciences. He was a poet, a philosopher, a physician, an astronomer, and a mathematician. He was a man also of great political consequence, as appears from pope Paul Ill.'s making use of his authority to remove the council of Trent to Bologna, under the pretext of a contagious distemper, which, as Fracastorio deposed, made it no longer safe for him to continue at Trent. He was intimately acquainted with cardinal Bembo, Julius Scaliger, and all the great men of his time. He died of an apoplexy, at Casi near Verona, in 1553; and in 1559 the town of Verona erected a statue in honour of him.
, the celebrated American philosopher, was sprung, as he himself informs us, from a family settled
, the celebrated American philosopher, was sprung, as he himself informs us, from a family settled for a long course of years in the village of Ecton, in Northamptonshire, where they had augmented their income, arising from a small patrimony of thirty acres, by adding to it the profits of a blacksmith’s business. His father, Josias, having been converted by some nonconformist ministers, left England for America, in 1682, and settled at Boston, as a soap-boiler and tallow-chandler. At this place, in 1706, Benjamin, the youngest of his sons, was born. It appeared at first to be his destiny to become a tallow-chandler, like his father; but, as he manifested a particular dislike to that occupation, different plans were thought of, which ended in his becoming a printer, in 1718, under one of his brothers, who was settled at Boston, and in 1721 began to print a newspaper. This was a business much more to his taste, and he soon shewed a talent for reading, and occasionally wrote verses which were printed in his brother’s newspaper, although unknown to the latter. He wrote also in the same some prose essays, and had the sagacity to cultivate his style after the model of the Spectator. With his brother he continued as an apprentice, until their frequent disagreements, and the harsh treatment he experienced, induced him to leave Boston privately, and take a conveyance by sea to New York. This happened in 1723. From New York he immediately proceeded, in quet of employment, to Philadelphia, not without some distressing adventures. His own description of his first entrance into that city, where he was afterwards in so high a situation, is too curious, to be omitted.
As a philosopher the distinguishing characteristics of Franklin’s mind, as they
As a philosopher the distinguishing characteristics of Franklin’s mind, as they have been appreciated by a very judicious writer, seem to have been a clearness of apprehension, and a steady undeviating common sense. We do not rind him taking unrestrained excursions into the more difficult labyrinths of philosophical inquiry, or indulging in conjecture and hypothesis. He is in the constant habit of referring to acknowledged facts and observations, and suggests the trials by which his speculative opinions may be put to the teat. He does not seek for extraordinary occasions of trying his philosophical acumen, nor sjts down with the preconceived intention of constructing a philosophical system. It is in the course of his familiar correspondence that he proposes his new explanations of phenomena, and brings into notice his new discoveries. A question put by a friend, or an accidental occurrence of the day, generally form the ground-work of these speculations. They are taken up by the author as the ordinary topics of friendly intercourse; they appear to cost him no Jahour; and are discussed without any parade. If an ingenious solution of a phenomenon is suggested, it is introduced with as much simplicity as if it were the most natural and obvious explanation that could be offered; and the author seems to value himself so little upon it, that the reader is in danger of estimating it below its real importance: If a mere hypothesis be proposed, the author himself is the first to point out its insufficiency, and abandons it with more facility than he had constructed it. Even the letters on electricity, which are by far the most finished of Franklin’s performances, are distinctly characterized by all these peculiarities. They are at first suggested by the accidental present of an electrical tube from a correspondent in London; Franklin and his friends are insensibly engaged in a course of electrical experiments; the results are from time to time communicated to the London correspondent; several important discoveries are made; and at length there arises a finished and ingenious theory of electricity. On this account the writings of Franklin possess a peculiar charm. They excite a favourable disposition and a friendly interest in the reader. The author never betrays any exertion, nor displays an. unwarrantable partiality for his own speculations; he assumes no superiority over his readers, nor seeks to elevate the importance of his conceptions, by the adventitious aid of declamation, or rhetorical flourishes. He exhibits no false zeal, no enthusiasm, but calmly and modestly seeks after truth; and if he fails to find it, has no desire to impose a counterfeit in its stead. He makes a familiar amusement of philosophical speculation; and while the reader thinks he has before him an ordinary and unstudied Jetter to a friend, he is insensibly engaged in deep disqu*sitions of science, and made acquainted with the ingenious solutions of difficult phenomena. Of Franklin’s more private and personal character, we have few particulars; but it is to be regretted that in his religious principles he was early, and all his life, one of the class of free-thinkers.
, a very eminent philosopher and mathematician, was born in Milan, April 13, 1727. He was
, a very eminent philosopher and mathematician, was born in Milan, April 13, 1727. He was first educated in the schools of the Barnabite fathers in that metropolis; and so uncommon was his progress in the classes, that it was soon predicted by his teachers and schoolfellows, that he would one day excel in polite literature, in poetry, and in pulpit eloquence; nature, however, had more unequivocally designed him to be what he really proved, a philosopher and a mathematician. In 1743, (the sixteenth of his age) he embraced the monastic life among the Barnabites of Lombardy, where he passed so rapidly through all the remainder of his studies, that he had the honour of being appointed, while still in the inferior orders, to the professorship of philosophy in the college of Lodi, and afterwards promoted, in the same capacity, to the royal school of Casale, in Monferrat, as a successor to the late celebrated cardinal Gerdil.,
propagated Christianity in that country, in the fourth century. He was the nephew of one Meropius, a philosopher of Tyre, who being induced to travel to Ethiopia, carried with
, a Romish saint, is usually called the Apostle of Ethiopia, on account of his having first propagated Christianity in that country, in the fourth century. He was the nephew of one Meropius, a philosopher of Tyre, who being induced to travel to Ethiopia, carried with him his two nephews, Frumentius and Edesius, with whose education he had been entrusted. In the course of their voyage homewards, the vessel touched at a certain port to take in provisions and fresh water, and the whole of the passengers were murdered by the barbarians of the country, except the two children, whom they presented to the king, who resided at Axuma, formerly one of the greatest cities of the East. The king, being charmed with the wit and sprightliness of the two boys, had them carefully educated, and when grown up, made Edesius his cup-bearer, and Frumentius, who was the elder, his treasurer and secretary of state, entrusting him with all the public writings and accounts. Nor were they less highly honoured after the king’s death by the queen, who was regent during her son’s minority. Frumentius had the principal management of affairs, and soon turned his attention to higher objects than the politics of the country. He met with some Roman merchants who traded there, and having by their means discovered some Christians who were in the kingdom, he encouraged them to associate for the purposes of religious worship; and at length erected a church for their use; and certain natives, instructed in the gospel, were converted. On the young king’s accession to the government, Frumentius, though with much reluctance on the part of the king and his mother, obtained leave to return to his own country. Edesius accordingly returned to Tyre; but Frumentius, on his arrival at Alexandria, communicated his adventures to Athanasius the bishop, and informed him of the probability of converting the country to Christianity, if missionaries were sent thither. On mature consideration, Athanasius told him, that none was so fit for the office as himself. He consecrated him therefore first bishop of the Indians, and Frumentius returning to a people who had been acquainted with his integrity and capacity, preached the gospel with much success, and erected many churches, although the emperor Constantius endeavoured to introduce Arianism, and actually ordered that Frumentius should be deposed, and an Arian bishop appointed; but the country was happily out of his reach. Frumentius is supposed to have died about the year 360. The Abyssinians honour him as the apostle of the country of the Axumites, which is the most considerable part of their empire.
; are painted with much life and humour by Dr. Freind. He came forward as an universal genius, was a philosopher, philologist, and poet, and undertook every thing that lay within
, an English physician, who lived in the early part of the fourteenth century, of very extensive and lucrative practice, was the first Englishman who was employed as a physician at court, being appointed to that office by Edward II.: before his time the king’s physicians had been exclusively foreigners. The ignorance, superstition, and low quackery, which appear throughout his practice; are painted with much life and humour by Dr. Freind. He came forward as an universal genius, was a philosopher, philologist, and poet, and undertook every thing that lay within the circle of physic and surgery, was skilled in manual operations, very expert in bone-setting, and a great oculist. He also acquaints us with his great skill in physiognomy; and designed to write a treatise of chiromancy. He was a great dealer in secrets, and some he had which were the most secret of secrets, and did miracles. But his chief strength lay in receipts, and without giving himself much trouble in forming a judgment respecting the nature of the case, he seemed to think that, if he could muster up a good number of these, he should be able to encounter any distemper. He seems to have neglected no stratagems, by which he might surprise and impose on the credulity of mankind, and to have been very artful in laying baits for the delicate, the ladies, and the rich. When he was employed in attending the king’s son, in the small-pox, in order to shew his skill in inflammatory distempers, he, with a proper formality, and a countenance of much importance, ordered the patient to be wrapped up in scarlet, and every thing about the bed to be of the same colour. This, he says, made him re-, cover without so much as leaving one mark in his face; and he commends it for an excellent mode of curing. Nevertheless this man was praised by Leland, Ovaringius, and others, as a profound philosopher, a skilful physician, and the brightest man of his age.
rst character for learning. Among others, he had a particular connection with Eudemus, a peripatetic philosopher of great repute. This person he cured of a fever, which from
He was now only twenty-eight years of age, and had made some considerable advances toward improving his art. He had acquired a particular skill in the wounds of the nerves, and was possessed of a method of treating them never known before; for Galen, as well as all other ancient physicians, united surgery to medicine. The pontiff of Pergamus gave him an opportunity of, trying his new method upon the gladiators, and he was so successful that not a single man perished by any wounds of this kind. He had been four years at Pergamus, exercising his faculty with unrivalled fame, when, being made uneasy by some seditious disturbances, he quitted his country and went to Rome, resolving to settle in that capital. But his views were disappointed. The physicians there, sensible of the danger of such a competitor, found means by degrees so completely to undermine him, that he was obliged, after a few years, to leave the city. He had, however, in that time made several acquaintances, both of considerable rank, and the first character for learning. Among others, he had a particular connection with Eudemus, a peripatetic philosopher of great repute. This person he cured of a fever, which from a quartan, bad degenerated into a triple quartan, by the ill-judged application which the patient had made of the theriacum; and what is somewhat remarkable, Galen cured the malady with the same medicine that had caused it; and even predicted when the fits would first cease to return, and in what time the patient would entirely recover. Indeed, so great was his skill and sagacity in these fevers, that if we may believe his own words, he was able to predict from (he first visit, or from the first attack, what species of a fever would appear, a tertian, quartan, or quotidian. He was also greatly esteemed by Sergius Paulus, praetor of Reme; as also by Barbarus, uncle to the emperor Lucius; by Severus, then consul, and afterwards emperor; and last^ by Boethus, a person of consular dignity, in whose presence he had an opportunity of making dissections, and of shewing, particularly, the organs of respiration and the voice, His reputation, likewise, was much increased by the success which he had in recovering the wife of Boethus, who on that occasion presented him with four hundred pieces of gold. But that on which he valued himself most, was the case of a lady, who was said to lie in a very dangerous condition; whose disorder he discovered to be love, the object of which was a rope-dancer thus rivalling th discovery of the luve of Antiochus for Stratonice, which had given so much celebrity to Krasistratus.
, baring the advantage of the best education, became not only an eminent physician, but also a great philosopher; and was particularly happy in a facility of expression, and
He was a man endowed with excellent parts, and, baring the advantage of the best education, became not only an eminent physician, but also a great philosopher; and was particularly happy in a facility of expression, and an unaffected eloquence; but the style of his works is extremely diffuse, his sentences are sometimes perplexed, and sometimes absolutely obscure. The great number of books which we have of his composing, to pass over those we have lost, are a convincing proof how little pains it cost him to write. Suidas tells us that he wrote not only ou physic and philosophy, but also on geometry and grammar. There are reckoned above five hundred books of his upon physic only, and about half that number upon other sciences. He even composed two books, containing a catalogue of his works; shewing the time and place in which some of them were composed, together with the occasion of writing them, and the proper order of reading them.
ighest esteem for him. Athenacus, his contemporary, shews the great opinion he had of his merit as a philosopher, by making him a guest at his feast of the philosophers; where
As a physician, the ancients had the highest esteem for
him. Athenacus, his contemporary, shews the great opinion he had of his merit as a philosopher, by making him
a guest at his feast of the philosophers; where he not only
compliments him upon the great number of his writings,
but adds, that in elocution and perspicuity of style, he
was inferior to none*. Eusebius, who lived about an
hundred years after him, observes, that the veneration in
which Galen was held as a physician, was such, that many
looked upon him as a God, and even paid him divine worship; accordingly Trallian gives him the title of “most
divine.
” Oribasius, who flourished soon after Eusebius,
and was himself Archiater to Julian, testified his esteem
for Galen, by the extracts he made of his works, as well
as by the praises which he bestows upon him. /Ktius and
Paulus vEgineta have also copied Galen, especially the
last, and his works were commented on by Stephen the
Athenian. Avicenna, Averroes, and the rest of the Arabian physicians, who take the best of what they have from
Galen, have not been wanting in their praises of him.
After all, however, it is certain he had in his own time a
considerable party to contend with, and these latter ages
have raised up some powerful adversaries to his name. The
practice of Hippocrates, which he laboured to re-establish,
did not triumph over the other sects, immediately upon
Galen’s declaring against them. The sect of the methodists (as it was called) supported its credit for some ages
d the same year, having lately invited him to Florence, gave him the post and title of his principal philosopher and mathematician.
While he was professor at Padua, in 1609, visiting Ve>nice, then famous for the nrt of making glass, he heard of
the invention of the telescope by James Metius, in
Holland. This notice was sufficient for Galileo; his curiosity
was raised; and the result of his inquiry was a telescope
of his own, produced from this hint, without having seen
the Dutch glass. All the discoveries he made in astronomy
were the easy and natural consequences of this invention,
which opening a way, till then unknown, into the heavens,
gave that science an entirely new face. Galileo, in one
of his works, ridicules the unwillingness of the Aristotelians to allow of any discoveries not known to their master,
by introducing a speaker who attributes the telescope to
him, on account of what he says of seeing the stars from
the bottom of a deep well. “The well,
” says he, “is the
tube of the telescope, the intervening vapours answer to
the glasses.
” He began by observing the moon, and calculating the height of her mountains. He then discovered
four of Jupiter’s satellites, which he called the Medicean
stars or planets, in honour of Cosmo II. grand duke of
Tuscany, who was of that noble family. Cosmo now recalled him from Padua, re-established him at Pisa, with a
very handsome stipend, in 1610; and the same year,
having lately invited him to Florence, gave him the post
and title of his principal philosopher and mathematician.
639, he became totally blind. He bore this great calamity with patience and resignation, worthy of a philosopher. The loss neither broke his spirit, nor hindered the course
He lived ten years after it, seven of which were employed in making still further discoveries with his telescope; but, by continual application to that instrument, added to the damage he received in his sight from the nocturnal air, his eyes grew gradually weaker, till, in 1639, he became totally blind. He bore this great calamity with patience and resignation, worthy of a philosopher. The loss neither broke his spirit, nor hindered the course of his studies. He supplied the defect by constant meditations, by which he prepared a large collection of materials; and began to dictate his own conceptions, when, by a distemper of three months continuance, wasting away by degrees, be expired at Arcetri near Florence , Jan. 8, 1642, in the same year that Newton was born. In stature he was small, but in aspect venerable, and his constitution vigorous; in company he was affable, free, and full of pleasantry. He took great delight in architecture and painting, and designed extremely well. He played exquisitely, on the lute; and whenever he spent any time in the country, he took great pleasure in husbandry. His learning was very extensive; and he possessed in a high degree a clearness and acuteness of wit. From the time of Archimedes, nothing had been done in mechanical geometry till Galileo, who, being possessed of an excellent judgment, and great skill in the most abstruse points of geometry, first extended the boundaries of that science, and began to reduce the resistance of solid bodies to its laws. Besides applying geometry to the doctrine of motion, by which philosophy became established on a sure foundation, he made surprising discoveries in the heavens by means of
” 1740, 4to. 2. “Literary and Philosophical Dissertations,” 1755, 8vo. 3. 4 “System of the Christian Philosopher,” 1721, 8vo. 4. “System of the Heart,” published in 1708, under
, a writer of some eminence, and a member of the French academy of sciences,
was born at Meulan in 1672, and, entering the church,
obtained the office of canon of the Holy Cross de la Bretonniere, and died at Paris in 1756. He was much esteemed
for his literary talents, which appeared in the following
works: 1. “Physical Astronomy,
” Literary and Philosophical Dissertations,
” System of the Christian Philosopher,
” System of the Heart,
” published in The Elegancies of Language reduced to their Principles,
” a book called by one writer, the
“Dictionary of fine Thoughts,
” and by others pronounced
to be a work which every man who writes should read.
uffoonery; and, in the same name and style, he printed in 1615, “The Calvinistic Elixir, or Reformed Philosopher’s Stone, first dug up by Calvin at Geneva, and afterwards polished
As he had a great deal of spirit and imagination, and a
strong voice, he became a popular preacher in the chief
cities of France. He acquitted himself in the pulpit
with uncommon vivacity, and had a peculiar turn for the
wit then in vogue, which, being enforced by a suitable
delivery, made deep impressions upon his audience. But
he was not content with the honour he thus did to his order.
His ambition led him to aim at being more extensively
serviceable by his writings. With that spirit, while yet in
his noviciate, he published in 1614 a defence of the Jesuits against three of their adversaries at once. This piece
he entitled “The Horoscope of Anti-Coton, together with
the life, death, burial, and apotheosis of his two cousingermans Marteliere and Hardeviliere.
” The treatise appeared under a feigned name, and was drawn up in the
ironical style, but too much vitiated by buffoonery; and,
in the same name and style, he printed in 1615, “The
Calvinistic Elixir, or Reformed Philosopher’s Stone, first
dug up by Calvin at Geneva, and afterwards polished by
Isaac Casaubon at London, with the testamentary codex
of Anti-Coton, lately found upon Charenton-bridge.
” The
first of these is entitled “Andrew Schioppii Casparis
fratris horoscopus,
” &c. Antwerp, Andres Schioppii Casparis fratris Elixir Calvinisticum,
” &c. ibid. L'Anticoton, on refutation
de la Lettre declaratoire du Pere Colon,
” Playdoye du Pierre de la Martiliere Avocat en Parlement
pour le Recteur de l'University de Paris contre lesJe-r
suits,
” Paris, 1612, 8vo. 3. “Petri Hardovilierii Actiopro
Academia Parisiensi adversus Presbyteros & Scholasticos
Collegii Claromontanii habita in Senatu Parisiensi. ann.
1611,
” Paris,
nd, conscious of the infirmity of human judgment, he never failed to make allowances for error. As a philosopher and a man of science, he was candid, ingenuous, and open to
, an ingenious English physician, was
born at Caste rton, near Kivkby Lonsda'le, Westmoreland,
April 21, 1766. About the age of fourteen, after having received the first rudiments of education at his native village,
he was placed as an apprentice under the tuition of Mr.
Dawson, at Sedbergh, in Yorkshire, a celebrated mathematician, who was at that time a surgeon and apothecary,
Here he laid the foundation of his medical and philosophical knowledge. After this he proceeded to Edinburgh,
and took his degree about 1758. During his residence
there, he became the pupil of Dr. Brown, whose new system of medicine Dr. Garnet, from this time, held in the
highest estimation. Soon after he visited London, and attended the practice of the hospitals. He had now arrived
at an age which made it necessary for him to think of some
permanent establishment. With this view he left London,
and settled at Bradford in Yorkshire, where he gave private lectures on philosophy and chemistry, and wrote a
treatise on the Horley Green Spa. In 179J he removed to
Knaresborough, and in summer to Harrogate, and was
soon engaged in an extensive practice. As this, however,
was necessarily limited to the length of the season, which
lasted only three or four months, Dr. G. soon after his
marriage, which took place in 1795, formed the design of
emigrating to America. At Liverpool, where he was waiting to embark, he was strongly solicited to give a chemical
course of lectures, which met with a most welcome reception, as did also another course on experimental philosophy. He then received a pressing invitation from Manchester, where he delivered the same lectures with equal
success. These circumstances happily operated to prevent his departure to America, and he became a successful candidate for the vacant professorship of Anderson’s
institution at Glasgow, in 1796. In Scotland, his leisure
hours were employed in collecting materials for his “Tour
through the Highlands;
” which work was in some degree
impeded by the sudden death of his wife in child-birth; an
event which so strongly affected his feelings, that he never
thought of it but with agony. Dr. G. was induced to relinquish the institution at Glasgow, by favourable offers
from the new Royal Institution in London, where, for one
season, he was professor of natural philosophy and che-p
mistry, and delivered the whole of the lectures. On
retiring from this situation, which was far too laborious
for the state of his health, at the close of 1801, he devoted
himself to his professional practice, and took a house in
Great Marlborough-street, where he built a new and convenient apartment, completed an expensive apparatus, and
during the winter of 1801 and 1802, he gave regular
courses on experimental philosophy and chemistry, and
a new course on “Zoonomia,
” or, “the Laws of
Animal Life, arranged according to the Brunonian theory.
”
These were interrupted in February, for some weeks, by
a dangerous illness, which left him in a languid state;
though he not only resumed and finished the lectures he
had begun, but also commenced two courses on botany,
one at his own house, and the other at Brompton. In the
midst of these, he received, by infection, from a patient
whom he had attended, the fever which terminated his life,
June 28, 1802. His “Zoonomia
” was afterwards published for the benefit of his family. “Thus,
” says his biographer, “was lost to society a man, the ornament of his
country, and the general friend of humanity. In his personal attachments, he was warm and zealous. In his religion he was sincere, yet liberal to the professors of contrary doctrines. In his political principles he saw no end,
but the general good of mankind; and, conscious of the
infirmity of human judgment, he never failed to make allowances for error. As a philosopher and a man of science,
he was candid, ingenuous, and open to conviction; he
never dealt in mystery, or pretended to any secret in art;
he was always ready in explanation, and desirous of assisting every person willing to acquire knowledge.
” Besides
his “Tour in Scotland,
” and the other works mentioned
before. Dr. Garnet contributed many papers to the Memoirs of the Medical Society of London, the Royal Irish
Academy, and other scientific societies.
ncern for his loss. His death was very heroical, and yet unaffected enough to have made a saint or a philosopher famous. But ill tongues and worse hearts have branded even his
The distemper which seized him the ensuing year, and
ended not but with his life, caused a general concern, and
was particularly testified by lord Lansdown, a brother
poet, though of a different party, in a copy of verses
written on the occasion. He died after a short illness,
which he bore with great patience, January 18, 1718-19.
His loss was lamented by Pope, in a letter to a friend, as
follows: “The best-natured of men,
” says this muchadmired poet, “Sir Samuel Garth, has left me in the
truest concern for his loss. His death was very heroical,
and yet unaffected enough to have made a saint or a philosopher famous. But ill tongues and worse hearts have
branded even his last moments, as wrongfully as they did
his life, with irreligipn. You must have heard many tales
on this subject; but if ever there was a good Christian,
without knowing himself to be so, it was Dr. Garth.
” This,
however, is nothing against positive evidence, that Dr.
Garth was a free-thinker, and a sensualist; and the latter
part of it, his being a good Christian without knowing
himself to be so, if it be not nonsense, is a proof that Pope
cannot deny what he is angry to hear, and loth to confess.
Dr. Johnson observes, that “Pope afterwards declared
himself convinced that Garth died in the communion of
the church of Rome,
” and adds a sentiment of Lowth’s,
“that there is less distance than is thought between scepticism and popery and that a mind, wearied with perpetual doubt, willingly seeks repose in the bosom of an
infallible church.
” If Dr. Johnson took this declaration of
Pope’s from Spence’s “ms Anecdotes,
” to which it is
known he had access, he did not transcribe the whole.
What Pope said is thus given by Spence: “Garth talked
in a less libertine manner than he had been used about the
three last years of his life. He was rather doubtful and
fearful than irreligious. It was usual for him to say, that
if there was any such thing as religion, it was among the
Roman catholics. He died a papist, (as I was assured by Mr. Blount, who called the father to him in his last moments) probably from the greater efficacy, in which we
give the sacraments. He did not take any care of himself
in his last illness, and had talked for three or four years as
one tired of living.
” The same ms. insinuate* that this
impatience of life had nearly at one time prompted him to
suicide.
, a very eminent mathematician and philosopher, was born Jan. 22, N. S. 1592, at a village called Chantersier,
, a very eminent mathematician and philosopher, was born Jan. 22, N. S. 1592, at a village called Chantersier, about three miles from Digne in Provence, in France. His father, Antony Gassendi, a Roman catholic, educated him with great piety, and the first words he learned to pronounce were those of his prayers. This practice made such an impression upon his infant mind, that at four years of age he demonstrated the good effects of it in reproving or exhorting his playfellows, as occasion prompted. In these first years of his youth he likewise took particular delight in gazing at the moon and stars, in clear uncloudy weather, and was so intent on these observations in solitary places, that his parents had him often to seek, not without many anxious fears. At a proper age they put him to school at Digne, to Godfrey Wendeline, an excellent master, under whose care he made a quick and extraordinary progress in learning. In a very short time he learned not only the elements of the Latin language, but was so far advanced in rhetoric as to be superior to all the boys in that school; and some friends who had witnessed his proficiency, recommended to have him removed, in order to study philosophy under Fesay, a very learned Minorite friar, then at Aix. This proposal was not much relished by his father, whose design was to breed up his son in his own way to country business, or farming, as a more profitable employment than that of a scholar, nor would he consent but upon condition that the boy should return home in two years at farthest. Young Gassendi accordingly, at the end of his allotted time, repaired to Chantersier; but he did not stay there long, being invited to be a teacher of rhetoric at Digne, before he was full sixteen years of age; and he had been engaged in this not above three years, when his master Fesay dying, he was made professor of philosophy in his room at Aix.
e sooner by the kindness of Louis Valois, earl of Alais, and viceroy of Provence, who, observing the philosopher’s circumstances, invited him to his house; where Gassendi’s
Gassendi had from his infancy a turn to astronomy, which grew up with his years; and, in 1618, he had begun to make observations upon the stars, and to digest them into a method. His reputation daily increasing, he became so eminent in that science, that in 1645 he was appointed royal professor of mathematics at Paris, by the interest of Alphonse du Plessis, cardinal of Lyons, and brother to car/dinal Richelieu. This institution being chiefly designed for astronomy, Gassendi not only employed himself very diligently in observations, but read lectures with great applause to a crowded audience. He did not, however, hold this place long; for, contracting a cold, which brought on a dangerous cough, and an inflammation of his lungs, he found himself under a necessity of quitting Paris; and being advised by the physicians to return to Digue for the benefit of his native air, he went there in 1647. This advice had the desired success; which was also effected the sooner by the kindness of Louis Valois, earl of Alais, and viceroy of Provence, who, observing the philosopher’s circumstances, invited him to his house; where Gassendi’s conversation upon points of learning gave him so high an idea of his talents, that he frequently made use of him as a friend and counsellor in political affairs. After enjoying this honourable ease until this nobleman was called to court, Gassendi returned to Digne, where he began to write the Ij^e of his patron, the famous Nicolas Peiresc, a task which had been enjoined him by the earl of Alais.
, an eminent Greek philosopher, palled also Pletho, was born at Constantinople, in 1390, He
, an eminent Greek philosopher,
palled also Pletho, was born at Constantinople, in 1390,
He was a zealous advocate for Platonism, and maintained
a violent controversy with the Aristotelians. He was a
strenuous defender of the Greek church against the Latins,
and was consulted as an oracle on the points in debate,
being unquestionably a man of learning and acuteness.
He is principally noticeable as being the first Greek who
gave occasion to the revival of Platonism in Italy, where
he made many illustrious converts, and was the means of
laying the foundation of a Platonic academy at Florence.
He afterwards returned to Greece, where he died at the
advanced age of nearly one hundred and one years. His
heretical and philosophical writings afford unquestionable
proofs of his learning, and particularly of his intimate
knowledge of the Alexandrian philosophy. In his “Kxplanation of the Magic Oracles of Zoroaster,
” Gr. and Lat.
Paris, On the Virtues,
”
Oxon. On the difference between the Platonic and Aristotelian Philosophy,
” Paris, He had a profound acquaintance with Grecian history, as appears by
his
” De iis qu post pugnam ad Mantinaam gesta sunt,“printed with the Venice edition of
” Herodian,“1503, foL
and with the Aldus
” Xenophon" of the same year.
, an eminent scholar, philosopher, and naturalist, and called the Pliny of Germany, was the son
, an eminent scholar, philosopher, and naturalist, and called the Pliny of Germany, was the son of Vasa Gesner, and Barbara Friccius, and born at Zurich in Switzerland in 1516, where he received the first rudiments of the Latin and Greek languages. His proficiency was such as to give every hope of his becoming an accomplished scholar, but the poverty of his father, who was a worker in hides, and perhaps wanted his son’s assistance in his trade, threatened a total interruption to his studies, when John James Ammian, professor of rhetoric at Zurich, took him to his house, and offered to defray the expence of his education. Gesner accordingly continued three years with Ammian, and applied to his studies with the utmost diligence. In his fifteenth year his father was killed in the civil wars of Switzerland, and his mother was no longer able to maintain him; and, added to these misfortunes, he fell into a dropsical disorder. On his recovery, finding himself destitute of friends, he determined, young as he was, to travel, in hopes of being able to provide a subsistence by his talents in some foreign country. With this view he first went to Strasburgh, where he entered into the service of Wolfgang Fabricius Capito, the learned Lutheran reformer, with whom he resumed the study of the Hebrew language, of which he had acquired some knowledge when at Zurich. After some months’ stay here he returned to Switzerland, and the public tranquillity being restored, he procured a pension from the academy of Zurich, which enabled him to make the tour of France. He passed a year at Bourges, applying to Greek and Latin with great attention; and finding his pension too scanty to maintain him, improved his finances in some degree by teaching school. Next year, he went to Paris, but is said to have made very little progress in study while there, and returned to Strasburgh in hopes of procuring some employment from the friends he had made, but was very soon recalled by the university of Zurich, and placed at the head of a reputable school. Here he might have maintained himself in the comfortable pursuit of his studies, had he not married, a step which, although he had afterwards no reason to repent of his choice, in his present circumstances was highly injudicious, and involved him in many difficulties.
colleges. He died July 15, 1694, and was buried in the church of St. Aldate. He was esteemed a good philosopher, disputant, and philologist, and a good Latin poet. He published,
, a nonconformist divine of very
considerable abilities, was the son of William Gilbert of
Priss, in Shropshire, and was born in 1613. In 1629 he
was admitted a student of Edmund-hall, Oxford, where he
took his bachelor’s degree, and after a short residence in
Ireland, returned and took that of master in 1638. By
the favour of Philip lord Wharton, he became minister of
Upper Winchington, in Buckinghamshire; and in 1647,
having taken the covenant, and become a favourite with the
usurping powers, he was appointed vicar of St. Lawrence’s,
Reading, and next year was created B. D. at the parliamentary visitation of the university of Oxford. About the
same time he obtained the rich rectory of Edgemond, in
his native county, where he was commonly called the bishop of Shropshire. In 1654 he was appointed an assistant
to the commissioners of Shropshire, Middlesex, and the
city of Westminster, for the ejection of such as were styled
“scandalous, ignorant, and insufficient ministers and
schoolmasters;
” and according to Wood, was not sparing
of the power which this sweeping commission gave him.
After the restoration, he was ejected for nonconformity,
and, retiring to Oxford, lived there very obscurely, with
his wife, in St. Ebbe’s parish, sometimes preaching in conventicles, and in the family of lord Wharton. Nor was
he without respect from some gentlemen of the university
on account of his talents. Calamy informs us that, in a
conversation with the celebrated Dr. South on the subject
of predestination, he so satisfied him, that South became
ever after an assertor of that doctrine. When a toleration
or temporary indulgence was granted to the nonconformists
in 1671, although a professed independent, he joined with
three presbyterians in establishing a conventicle in Thames
street, in the suburbs of Oxford; but this indulgence was
soon called in. In his last days he was reduced to great
distress, and was supported by the contributions of private
persons, and of several heads of colleges. He died July
15, 1694, and was buried in the church of St. Aldate. He
was esteemed a good philosopher, disputant, and philologist, and a good Latin poet. He published, 1. “Vindicise
supremi Dei dominii,
” against Dr. Owen, Lond. An Assize Sermon,
” ibid. England’s Passing-Bell, a poem written soon after the year of
the plague, the fire of London, and the Dutch war,
” Super auspicatissimo regis Gulielmi in Hiberniam
descensu, et salva ex Hibernia reditu, carmen gratulatorium,
” Epitapbia diversa,
” chiefly on persons not of the church of
England. 6. “Julius Secundus,
” a dialogue, Ox. Jani Alex. Ferrafii Euclides
catholicus,
” an ironical work against the Romish church,
written by an English convert who chose to conceal his
true name. Gilbert translated into Latin a considerable
part of Francis Potter’s book entitled “An interpretation
of the number 666,
” printed at Amsterdam, Anni mirabiles,
” printed in
gners; the famous Peiresc often lamented, that when he was in England he was not acquainted with our philosopher.
After the death of Elizabeth, the doctor was continued
as chief physician to James I. but he enjoyed that honour
only a short time, dying Nov. 30, 1603. His corpse wa
interred in Trinity Church, at Colchester, where he was
burn, and where there is a handsome monument raised to
his memory a print of which is to be seen in Morant’s
“History and Antiquities of Colchester.
” By a picture of
him in the school-gallery of Oxford, he appears to have
been tall of stature, and of a chearful countenance. His
character stood very high with the philosophers of his age
and country. Carpenter tells, us, that he had trodden oat
a new path to philosophy. Sir Kenelm Digby compares
him with Harvey, the discoverer of the circulation. Barrow ranks him with Galileo, Gassendus, Mercennus, and
Des Cartes; whom he represents as men resembling the
ancients in sagacity and acuteness of genius . Nor was
his fame less celebrated among foreigners; the famous
Peiresc often lamented, that when he was in England he
was not acquainted with our philosopher.
r application of his own experiments, and vainly fancied that he had discovered the panacea, and the philosopher’s stone, which were at that time objects of pursuit; and the
, a celebrated chemist of Amsterdam, and called the Paracelsus of his age, was born in Germany in the beginning of the sixteenth century. He travelled much in the pursuit of chemical knowledge, and collected many secret processes; and his experiments contributed to throw much light on the composition and analysis of the metals, inflammable substances, and salts. In fact he passed the greater part of his life in the laboratory. He did not always see the proper application of his own experiments, and vainly fancied that he had discovered the panacea, and the philosopher’s stone, which were at that time objects of pursuit; and the disappointment of many persons who had been seduced by his promises, contributed to bring the art of chemistry into contempt. His theory is full of obscurity; but his practice has perhaps been misrepresented by those who listened to his vain and pompous pretensions; and who accuse him of a dishonourable traffick, in first selling his secrets to chemists at an enormous price, of again disposing of them to other persons, and lastly, of making them public in order to extend his reputation. Glauber published about twenty treatises; in some of which he appears in the character of physician, in others in that of an adept or metallurgist; in the latter he most particularly excelled. However, it would be unjust not to give him the praise of acuteness of mind, of facility and address in the prosecution of his experiments, and of extensive chemical knowledge. He was the inventor of a salt which to this day retains his name in the shops of our apothecaries. The works of Glauber have appeared in different languages; the majority of editions are in German, some in Latin, and others in French. A collection of the whole in Latin was published at Francfort in 1658, in 8vo, and again 165y, in 4to. An English translation was published by Christopher Pack, London, 1689, fol.
d unpurchased but as it appears justly due to the memory of so excellent a poet, statesman, and true philosopher, in life and death the same.”
His character was drawn up by the late Dr. Brocklesby
for the Gentleman’s Magazine, and as far as respects his
amiable disposition, was confirmed to us by Dr. VVarton,
who knew him well. “Through the whole of his life Mr.
Glover was by all good men revered, by the wise esteemed, by the great sometimes caressed and even flattered,
and now his death is sincerely lamented by all who had the
happiness to contemplate the integrity of his character.
Mr. Glover, for upwards of 50 years past through every
vicissitude of fortune, exhibited the most exemplary simplicity of manners; having early attained that perfect
equanimity, which philosophy often recommends in the
closet, but which in experience is too seldom exercised by
other men in the test of trial. In Mr. Glover were united
a wide compass of accurate information in all mercantile
concerns, with high intellectual powers of mind, joined to
a copious flow of eloquence as an orator in the house of
commons. Since Milton he was second to none of our
English poets, in his discriminating judicious acquaintance
with all ancient as well as modern literature witness his
Leon i das, Medea, Boadicea, and London for, having
formed his own character upon the best models of the
Greek writers, he lived as if he had been bred a disciple
of Socrates, or companion of Aristides. Hence his political turn of mind, hence his unwarped affection and active
zeal for the rights and liberties of his country. Hence his
heartfelt exultation whenever he had to paint the impious
designs of tyrants in ancient times frustrated, or in modern
defeated in their nefarious purposes to extirpate liberty, or
to trample on the unalienable rights of man, however remote in time or space from his immediate presence. In a
few words, for the extent of his various erudition, for his
unalloyed patriotism, and for his daily exercise and constant practice of Xenophou’s philosophy, in his private as
well as in public life, Mr. Glover has left none his equal
in the city, and some time, it is feared, may elapse before
such another citizen shall arise, with eloquence, with
character, and with poetry, like his, to assert their rights,
or to vindicate with equal powers the just claims of freeborn men. Suffice this testimony at present, as the wellearned meed of this truly virtuous man, whose conduct was
carefully marked, and narrowly watched by the writer of
the foregoing hasty sketch, for his extraordinary qualities
during the long period in human life of upwards of 40
years and now it is spontaneously offered as a voluntary
tribute, unsolicited and unpurchased but as it appears
justly due to the memory of so excellent a poet, statesman,
and true philosopher, in life and death the same.
”
given to him. Such an acquaintance with the state of philosophy and the improvements of our immortal philosopher, could not have been acquired at his age. “Hosier’s Ghost” was
His “Athenaid
” was published in Leonidas,
” in which the Greeks are conducted through the vicissitudes of the war with Xerxes to the final emancipation of their country from his invasions. As an epic it seems defective in many respects. Here is no hero in whose fate the mind is exclusively engaged, but a race of heroes who demand our admiration by turns; the events of history, too, are so closely followed, as to give the whole the air of a poetical chronicle. Of his smaller poems, that on sir Isaac Newton is certainly an extraordinary production from a youth of sixteen, but the theme was probably given to him. Such an acquaintance with the state of philosophy and the improvements of our immortal philosopher, could not have been
acquired at his age. “Hosier’s Ghost
” was long one of
the most popular English ballads; but his “London,
” if
intended for popular influence, was probably read and understood by few. In poetical merit, however, it is not
unworthy of the author of “Leonidas.
” Fielding wrote a
very long encomium on it in his “Champion,
” and predicted rather too rashly, that it would ever continue to be
the delight of all that can feel the exquisite touch of poetry,
or be roused with the divine enthusiasm of public spirit.
mate friend. His brother Andrew, also, doctor of physic of the faculty at Montpellier, was a learned philosopher, who followed the principles of Epicurus and Gassendi. He died
, an ingenious Frenchman,
was a native of Caen in the seventeenth century, and the
discoverer of the art of making figured diaper. He did not,
however, bring it to perfection, for he only wove squares
and flowers; but his son Richard Graindorge, living to
the age of eighty-two, had leisure to complete what his
father had begun, and found a way to represent all sorts
of animals, and other figures. This work he called Hautelice, perhaps because the threads were twisted in the
woof. They are now called damasked cloths, from their
resemblance to white damask. This ingenious workman,
also invented the method of weaving table napkins; and
his son, Michael, established several manufactures in different parts of France, where these damasked cloths are
become very common. The same family has produced several other persons of genius and merit among these is
James Graindorge, a man of wit and taste, and well skilled
in antiquities he is highly spoken of by M. Huet, who
was his intimate friend. His brother Andrew, also,
doctor of physic of the faculty at Montpellier, was a learned
philosopher, who followed the principles of Epicurus and
Gassendi. He died January 13, 1676, aged sixty. He
left, “Traite de la Nature du Feu, de la Lumiere, et des
Couleurs,
” 4to; “Traite de TOrigine des Macreuses,
”
De Interpretatione
” to this gentleman.
, a philosopher and mathematician, was born Oct. 1, 1671, at Cremona, where
, a philosopher and
mathematician, was born Oct. 1, 1671, at Cremona, where
his father, a branch of a decayed family, carried on the
business of ai> embroiderer. His mother, a woman of considerable talents, taught him Latin, and gave him some
taste for poetry. Being disposed to a studious life, he
cliose the profession of theology, that he might freely indulge his inclination. He entered into the religious order
of Camaldolitesj at Raverrna, in 1687, where he was distinguished for his proficiency in the different branches of
literature and science, but was much dissatisfied with the
Peripatetic philosophy of the schools. He had not been
here long before he established an academy of students of
his own age, which he called the Certanti, in opposition
to another juvenile society called the Concordi. To his
philosophical studies he added those of the belles lettres,
music, and history. It appears to have been his early ambition to introduce a new system in education, and with
that view he obtained the professorship of philosophy at Florence, by the influence of father Caramelli, although not
without some opposition from the adherents to the old
opinions. He now applied himself to the introduction of
the Cartesian philosophy, while, at the same time, he became zealously attached to mathematical studies. The
works of the great Torricelli, of our countryman Wallis,
and of other celebrated mathematicians, were his favourite
companions, and the objects of his familiar intercourse.
His first publication was a treatise to resolve the problems
of Viviani on the construction of arcs, entitled “Geometrica Demonstnuio Vivianeorum problematum,
” Florence,
Geometrica
dernonslratio theorematum Hugenianorum circa logisticam,
seu Logarithmicam lineatn,
” Quadratura
circuii et hyperbola3 per infinitas hyperbolas et parabolas
geometrice exhibita,
” Pisa, Sejani et Rufini dialogus de Laderchiana historia S.
Petri Damiani,
” Paris, Dissertationes Camaldu lenses,
” embracing inquiries into the history of the Camaldolites, both which gave so much offence to the community, that he was deposed from the dignity of abbot of
St. Michael at Pisa; but the grand duke immediately appointed him his professor of mathematics in the university.
He now resolved some curious and difficult problems for
the improvement of acoustics, which had been presented
to the royal society in Dublin, and having accomplished
his objecvt, he transmitted the solutions, by means of the
British minister at the court of Florence, to the Royal
Society at London. This was published under the title of
“Disquisitio geometrica in systema sonorum D. Narcissi
(Marsh) archiepiscopi Armachani,
” in De infinitis infinitorum, et infinite parvorum ordinibus disquisitio geometrica,
” Pisa,
, an eminent Dutch philosopher, was born Sept. 26, 1688, at Bois-le-duc, in Holland, of an
, an eminent Dutch
philosopher, was born Sept. 26, 1688, at Bois-le-duc, in
Holland, of an ancient and honourable family. He was
educated with the greatest care, and very early discovered
an extraordinary genius for mathematical learning. He
was sent to the university of Leyden, in 1704, with an intention to study the civil law; but at the same time he
cultivated with the greatest assiduity his favourite science.
Before he was nineteen, he composed his treatise on perspective, which gained him great credit among the most
eminent mathematicians of his time. When he had taken
his doctor’s degree in 1707, he quitted the college, and
settled at the Hague, where he practised at the bar. In
this situation he contracted and cultivated an acquaintance
with learned men; and made one of the principal members
of the society that composed a periodical review, entitled
“Le Journal LitteVaire.
” This journal began in May
Remarks on the construction of
Pneumatical Engines;
” A moral Essay on Lying;“and a celebrated Essay on the Collision of Bodies;
”
which, as it opposed the Newtonian philosophy, was attacked by Dr. Clarke, and many other learned men.
rn of genteel parents at Roggiano, February 18, 1664; and educated under Gregory Caloprese, a famous philosopher of that time, and his cousin-german. He went to Naples at sixteen,
, an eminent scholar, and
illustrious lawyer of Italy, was born of genteel parents at
Roggiano, February 18, 1664; and educated under Gregory Caloprese, a famous philosopher of that time, and
his cousin-german. He went to Naples at sixteen, and
there applied himself to the Latin and Greek languages,
and to civil law; which application, however, did not
make him neglect to cultivate, with the utmost exactness,
his own native tongue. He was so fond of stu<jy, that he
pursued it ten or twelve hours a day, to the very last years
of his life; and, when his friends remonstrated agakist this
unnecessary labour, he used to tell them that he knew of
nothing which could afford him more pleasure. He went
to Rome in 1689, and some years after was made professor
of canon law, in the college of Sapieozia, by Innocent
XL who esteemed him much; which employment he held
as long as he lived. He does not, however, seem to have
been of an amiable cast; at least he had not the art of
making himself beloved. The free manner in which he
spoke of all mankind, and the contempt with which he
treated the greatest part of the learned, raised him up many
enemies; and among others the famous Settano, who has
made him the subject of some of his satires. It is said that
he missed a cardinal’s hat because of his satirical turn of
mind. When at Rome he used to bow to coach-horses,
“because,
” said he, “were it not for these poor beasts,
these great people would have men, and even philosophers, to draw their coaches.
” There were at one time
doubts of his religious principles, and his pupil Metastasio
seems inclined to justify these, by sinking this part of his
history. Many universities of Germany would have drawn
Gravina to them, and made proposals to him for that purpose; but nothing was able to seduce him from Rome.
That of Turin offered him the first professorship of law, at
the very time that he was attacked by the distemper of
which he died, and which seems to have been a mortification in his bowels. He was troubled with pains in those
parts for many years before; but they did not prove fatal
to him till Jan. 6, 1718. He had made his will in April
1715, in which he ordered his body to be opened and
embalmed.
tli, where he formed an acquajntance with Dr. Beattie, “whom,” says Dr. Johnson, “he found a poet, a philosopher, and a good man,” but at that time little known beyond the circle
In the summer of 1765 he took a journey into Scotland,
to improve his health, which was then weak and uncertain, and to gratify his curiosity with the natural beauiies
and antiquities of that wild and romantic country. He
went through Edinburgh and Perth to Glames-castle, the
seat of iord V Strathmore, where he resided some time, and
afterwards went to the nortli, where he formed an acquajntance with Dr. Beattie, “whom,
” says Dr. Johnson, “he
found a poet, a philosopher, and a good man,
” but at
that time little known beyond the circle of his friends at
Aberdeen. Gray’s account of this journey, says Dr. Johnson, “so far as it extends, is curious and elegant; for as
his comprehension was ample, his curiosity extended to
all the works of art, all the appearances of nature, and all
the monuments of past events.
” Part of the summer of
1766 and 1767 he passed in journies in England, and had
intended a second tour to Scotland, but returned to London without accomplishing his design. At Dr. Beattie’s
desire, a new edition of his poems was printed by the
Foulis’s of Glasgow, then the most elegant printers in the
island; and at the same time Dodsley was also printing
them in London. In both these editions, the “Long
Story
” was omitted, as the plates from Bentley’s designs
which illustrated it were worn out, but some pieces of
Welch and Norwegian poetry, written in a bold and original manner, were inserted in its place of which the
“Descent of Odin
” is undoubtedly the most valuable,
though in many places it is obscure. This his late biographer attributes to his having translated only that part
of it which he found in the Latin version of Bartholinus.
Athanasius at Alexandria; but he was opposed by the Arians, who consecrating Maximus, a famous cynic philosopher and Christian, gave him a great deal of trouble. The Arian bishop,
By these breaches in the family, Nazianzen was sufficiently weaned from the place of his nativity; and, though he was not able to procure a successor to" his father, he resolved to throw up his charge, and accordingly retired to Seleucia, famous for the temple of St. Thercla, the virginmartyr; where, in a monastery of devout virgins dedicated to that saint, he continued a long time, and did not return till the death of St. Basil, whom he deeply regretted he could not attend at his last hours, being himself confined by sickness. About this time he was summoned to a council at Antioch, holden anno 378, to consider the emperor’s late edict for tolerating the catholics, in order to suppress Arianism; and, being ordered by the council to fix himself for that purpose at Constantinople, he presently repaired thither. Here he found the catholic interest at the lowest ebb; the Arians, favoured by Valens, had possessed themselves of all the churches, and proceeded to such extremities that scarcely any of the orthodox dared avow their faith. He first preached in his lodgings to those that repaired thither, and the congregation soon growing numerous, the house was immediately consecrated by Nazianzen, under the name of the church of Anastasia, or the resurrection; because the catholic faith, which in that city had been hitherto oppressed, here seemed to have its resurrection. The opposition to his measures but increased his fame, together with the number of his auditors, and even drew admirers and followers from foreign parts; among whom St. Jerom, lately ordained presbyter, came on purpose to put himself under his tutelage and discipline; an honour in which Jerom glories on every occasion. As the catholics grew more considerable, they chose him for their bishop, and the choice was confirmed by Meletus of Antioch, and Peter who succeeded Athanasius at Alexandria; but he was opposed by the Arians, who consecrating Maximus, a famous cynic philosopher and Christian, gave him a great deal of trouble. The Arian bishop, however, was at length forced to retire, and his successor Demophilus was deposed by the emperor Theodosius, who directed an edict to the people of Constantinople, February 27, 380, re-establishing the orthodox faith; and afterward coming thither in person, he treated Nazianzen with all possible kindness and respect, and appointed a day for his instalment in the see.
uperstition and idolatry, Christianity had as yet scarce made its entrance there. However, our young philosopher was appointed to be a guide of souls in the place of his nativity.
Neo-Caesarea was a large and populous place, but being miserably overgrown with superstition and idolatry, Christianity had as yet scarce made its entrance there. However, our young philosopher was appointed to be a guide of souls in the place of his nativity. Phredinius, bishop of Amasia, a neighbouring city in that province, cast his eye upon him for that purpose; and it was thought his relation to the place would more endear the employment tohim. But, upon receiving the tirst intimation of the design, he shifted his quarters, and, as oft as sought for, fled from one desert to another; so that the bishop by all his arts and industry could not obtain intelligence of him; he therefore constituted him bishop of the place in his absence, and how averse soever he seemed to be before, he now accepted the charge, when perhaps he had a more formal and solemn consecration. The province he entered upon was difficult; the city and neighbourhood being wholly addicted to the worship of demons, and there not being above seventeen Christians in those parts, so that he must find a church before he could govern it. The country was overrun with heresies; and himself, though accomplished sufficiently in human learning, was altogether unexercised in theological studies and the mysteries of religion. But here again he had immediate assistance from heaven; for, one night, as it is related by his biographer, Gregory of Nyssen, with the superstitious spirit then prevalent, while he was musingupon these things, and discussing matters of faith in his own mind, he bad a vJsJon, in which St. John the evangelist and the blessed virgin appeared in the chamber where he was, and discoursed before him concerning those points. In consequence, after their departure, he immediately penned that canou and rule of faith which they had declared. To this creed he always kept himself, and bequeathed it as an inestimable deposit to his successors. The original, written with his own hand, we are informed, was preserved in that church in his name. It is cited by Dr. Waterland, as express and explicit respecting the doctrine of the Trinity. There can be no doubt of its authenticity, although the Socinians have taken much pains to prove the contrary.
deed to see various changes of opinions and professions, apparently with the tranquillity becoming a philosopher and a good man, and died suddenly, March 25, 1711.
, the first and most universal vegetable anatomist and physiologist of this country, the son of
the preceding, was born at Coventry. The year of his
birth is not mentioned, but from some circumstances appears to have been 1628. He was brought up a presbyterian, his father having taken the covenant; and on the
change of the national form of religion, at the restoration
of Charles II. he was sent to study in some foreign university, where he took his degree of doctor of physic. He
settled first at Coventry, and probably resided there in
1664, when, as he informs us in tht 1 preface to his Anatomy
of Plants, he first directed his thoughts to the subject of
that work, “upon reading some of the many and curious
inventions of learned men, in the bodies of animals. For
considering that both of them came at first out of the same
hand, and were therefore the contrivances of the same wisdom; I thence,
” says he, “fully assured myself, that it
could not be a vain design to seek it in both. That so I
might put somewhat upon that side the leaf which the best
botanicks had left bare and empty.
” Four years afterwards
he consulted his brother-in-law, Dr. Henry Sampson, who
encouraged him to go on, by pointing out a passage in
Glisson’s book “De Hepate,
” chap. 1, in which the anatomy of plants is hinted at as an unexplored, but very
promising line of study for a practical observer. For some
time he resided at Coventry, but determining to settle in
London, he came thither about 1672. Before this his first
essay on the anatomy of plants was communicated to the
royal society in 1670, by bishop Wilkins, under the title
of an “Idea of a Philosophical History of Plants.
” It was
received with the honour and attention it deserved, being ordered to be printed, and its author, in that year
also, on the recommendation of the same learned divine,
became a fellow of the royal society. He was appointed
secretary in 1677, in which capacity he published the
Philosophical Transactions from Jan. 1677-8, to Feb. in the
following year. In 1680 he was made an honorary fellovr
of the college of physicians. He is said to have attained
to considerable practice in his profession, nor did his being
a nonconformist deprive him of the credit justly due to his
piety and philosophical merit, even in the worst times. He
lived indeed to see various changes of opinions and professions, apparently with the tranquillity becoming a philosopher and a good man, and died suddenly, March
25, 1711.
it is the creature and kingdom of God.” He was an illustrious proof that it is the fool, and not the philosopher, “who hath said in his heart there is no God” The works of Grew
In 1681 Dr. Grew published a folio volume, entitled
“Museum Regalis Societatis,
” or a catalogue and description of the natural and artificial rarities belonging to the
Royal Society, and preserved at Gresbam college. This
is a scientific and descriptive catalogue, with learned references to preceding writers. It is accompanied by “the
Comparative Anatomy of Stomachs and Guts begun, being
several lectures read before the Royal Society in 1676.
”
Twenty-two plates illustrate the first part of this volume,
and nine the latter, which were given to him by Daniel
Coiwell, esq. the founder of the collection. The latest
publication of our author was “Cosmographia Sacra, or a
Discourse of the Universe, as it is the creature and kingdom of God.
” He was an illustrious proof that it is the
fool, and not the philosopher, “who hath said in his heart
there is no God
” The works of Grew were soon translated
into French and Latin, but the latter very incorrectly. His
funeral sermon was preached at the meeting in the Old
Jewry by the rev. John Shower. It appears by this discourse that Dr. Grew illustrated his learned character by a
life of strict piety, humility, and charity.
ome of the most delightful hours she herself had ever passed were in the conversation of this female philosopher.” Her son, who was also his majesty’s printer at Dublin, and
, a very extraordinary woman, (whose maiden name is nowhere mentioned), was born
in the county of Kilkenny in Ireland, and married to Mr.
George Grierson, printer in Dublin. She died in 1733,
at the age of twenty-seven; and was allowed to be an excellent scholar, not only in Greek and Roman literature,
but in history, divinity, philosophy, and mathematics. She
gave a proof of her knowledge in the Latin tongue by her
dedication of the Dublin edition of Tacitus to lord Carteret; and by that of Terence to his son, to whom she likewise wrote a Greek epigram. Dr. Harwood esteems her
Tacitus one of the best edited books ever published.
Among the editions of her husband’s press, is a very fine
one of Dupin’s Ecclesiastical History, 1724, 3 vols. folio,
a rare book in this country. Mrs. Grierson composed some
poems in English, several of which are inserted by Mrs.
Barber amongst her own. When lord Carteret was lordlieutenant of Ireland, he obtained a patent for Mr. Grierson, her husband, to be the king’s printer; and, to distinguish and reward her uncommon merit, had her life inserted in it. Besides her parts and learning, she was also
a woman of great virtue and piety. Mrs. Pilkington has
recorded some particulars of her, and tells us, that, “when
about eighteen years of age, she was brought to her father,
to be instructed in midwifery; that she was mistress of
Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and French, and understood the
mathematics as well as most men: and what,
” says Mrs.
Pilkington, “made these extraordinary talents yet more
surprising was, that her parents were poor illiterate country people; so that her learning appeared like the gife
poured out on the apostles, of speaking all the languages
without the pains of study.
” Mrs. Pilkington inquired of
her, where she had gained this prodigious knowledge: to
which Mrs. Grierson sail, that “she had received some
little instruction from the minister of the parish, when she,
could spare time from her needle-work, to which she was
closely kept by her mother.
” Mrs. Pilkington adds, that
“she wrote elegantly both in verse and prose; that her
turn was chiefly to philosophical or divine subjects; that
her piety was not inferior to her learning; and that some
of the most delightful hours she herself had ever passed
were in the conversation of this female philosopher.
” Her
son, who was also his majesty’s printer at Dublin, and instructed by her, was a man of uncommon learning, great
wit, and vivacity. He died in Germany, at the age of
twenty-seven. Dr. Johnson highly respected his abilities,
and often observed, that he possessed more extensive knowledge than any man of his years he had ever known. His
industry was equal to his talents, he particularly excelled
in every species of philological learning, and was perhaps
the best critic of his time.
ing him to learned men, Erasmus recommends him as a man perfectly skilled in Latin and Greek, a good philosopher and mathematician, and a man of humble manners, whose object
, a very learned German, was thg son of a peasant of Suabia, and born at Veringen in the county of Hohenzollern in 1493. He pursued his studies in Pfortsheim at the same time with Melancthon, which gave rise to a lasting friendship between them. He then went for farther instruction to Vienna, and there taking the degree of master in philosophy* was appointed Greek professor. Having embraced the protestant religion, he was exposed to many dangers; and particularly in Baden, of which he was some years rector of the school. He was thrown into prison at the instigation of the friars; but at the solicitation of the nobles of Hungary, was set at liberty, and retired to Wittemberg, where he had a conference with Luther and Melancthon. Being returned to his native country, he was invited to Heidelberg, to be Greek professor in that city, in 1523. He exercised this employment till 1529, when he was invited to Basil to teach publicly in that city. In 1531, he took a journey into England, and carried with him a recommendatory letter from Erasmus to William Montjoy, dated Friburg, March 18, 1531. After desiring Montjoy to assist Grynaeus as much as he could, in shewing him libraries, and introducing him to learned men, Erasmus recommends him as a man perfectly skilled in Latin and Greek, a good philosopher and mathematician, and a man of humble manners, whose object was to visit the libraries, &c. Erasmus recommended him also to sir Thomas More, from whom he received the highest civilities, In 1534, he was employed, in conjunction with other persons, in reforming the church and school of Tubingen. He returned to Basil in 1536, and in 1540 was appointed to go to the conferences of Worms, with Melancthon, Capito, Bucer, Calvin, &c. He died, of the plague at Basil in 1541.
centuries. Some years before, he had received a similar compliment from a northern power. This true philosopher, without ceasing to serve his country, knew how to extend his
, an agreeable French writer,
was born at Marseilles in 1720, and became a merchant of
distinguished probity. Having often had occasion to visit
Constantinople, Smyrna, &c. in the course of business, he
conceived the idea of comparing the ancient and modern
Greeks, and endeavouring to trace among the latter what
was yet to be found of the grandeur, spirit, and institutions
of their ancestors. For this purpose he made frequent excursions from Constantinople, where he lived under the
immediate protection of the king of France, into Greece,
with Homer in his hand; and how extensive and minute
his observations were, appeared in his “Voyage Litteraire
de la Grece,
” on which his fame chiefly rests, and which
was first published in 1771, 2 vols. 12mo; in 1783, 4 vols.
8vo. He was taking another voyage in order to correct
and enlarge a new edition of this work, when he died at
Zante in 1799. This work procured him a very considerable name in the literary wprld; but in whatever reputation it was held in Europe, he afforded such satisfaction to
the subjects of his inquiry) that the modern Greeks, to testify to him their gratitude for his having so well defended
them from their detractors, unanimously offered him the
diploma of citizen of Athens; reviving^ in his favour, an
ancient ceremony fallen into desuetude for a great many
centuries. Some years before, he had received a similar
compliment from a northern power. This true philosopher,
without ceasing to serve his country, knew how to extend
his beneficent views beyond the limits of his country. The
“Voyage Litteraire de la Grece,
” however, is the chief
work of C. Guys. His other pieces are, a “Relation Abrege*e de ses Voyages en Italic et dans le Nord;
” and a translation in verse of the elegies of Tibullus, an essay upon the
antiquities of Marseilles his native place, and the eloge of
Duguay-Trouin. A translation of his Journey was published
in English in 1772, 3 vols. 12mo, with the improper title
of a “Sentimental Journey.
”
al work, which contributed much to his reputation. In 1740, he composed the beautiful satire of “The Philosopher;” in 1741, the sublime picture of the “Sage;” in 1742, the Universal
About this time (1729), he came to London with the
Danish ambassador, baron Stoelenthal, and here he composed some of his most beautiful odes, and his best songs.
In 1733 he was appointed secretary of the English factory
at Hamburgh, which united him with our countrymen,
whom he always esteemed. In 1734 he married the
daughter of an English taylor, of the name of Butler, a
step which does not seem to have added to his happiness.
In 1738 he published the first volume of his “Fables,
” an
original work, which contributed much to his reputation. In
1740, he composed the beautiful satire of “The Philosopher;
” in Sage;
” in
Happiness.
” This
last piece is equally favourable to his opinions and his
poetical talents. His modest muse does not succeed in
sublime descriptions, or the dithirambic flights: it has
more of the elegance that pleases, than the splendour that
dazzles; more Socratic wisdom, than oriental sublimity.
His Moral Poems are like the Sermones of Horace. His
“Considerations on some of the Attributes of God
” contains the sublimest passages of Scripture “The Prattler
”
is a dialogue full of familiar descriptions of human life
*/ The Letter to a Friend“is an instructive commentary
on the
” Nil Adrnirari" of Horace. Various other pieces
followed; but, in 1750, he first excited the gaiety of his
nation, by mixing sports and graces with the solemn poetry
of the Germans. His odes and songs are highly pleasing.
Nature, sprightliness, simplicity, enthusiasm, and harmony,
unite to render them seductive: for spirit and elegance,
he may be said to resemble our own Prior.
, an eminent natural philosopher, particularly distinguished by his experiments on the physiology
, an eminent natural philosopher, particularly distinguished by his experiments on the physiology of plants, was the sixth son of Thomas Hales, esq. of Beakeborn, or Beckesbourn, Kent, and grandson of sir Robert Hales, bart. of Beckesbourn, where he was born, Sept. 17, 1677, and was admitted a pensioner of Bene't college, Cambridge, under the tuition of Mr. Moss, June 19, 1696, where, after taking his first degree in arts, he was admitted a fellow, Fob. 25, 1702-3. He proceeded M. A. at the next commencement, and was admitted B. D. in 1711. The degree of D. D. was conferred on him by the university of Oxford in 1733. Botany and anatomy formed his studies of relaxation while at Cambridge, his companion in which was the celebrated antiquary Dr. Stukeley. He was advanced successively to the perpetual curacy of Teddington, Middlesex, and to the livings of Portlock, Somersetshire, and Farringdon, Hampshire. He married Mary, the daughter and heiress of Dr. Henry Newce of Much-Hadham, in the county of Hertford, and rector of Halisham in Sussex. This lady died at the end of two years, leaving no issue, nor did he ever marry strain. He resided to the end of his life at Teddington, wliere he was visited by persons of rank and taste, amongst others by Frederick late prince of Wales, after whose death Dr. Hales was made clerk of the closet to the princess dowager, who always entertained a high respect for him, and after his decease erected a handsome monument to his memory in Westminster-abbey, near that of Handel. On this is liis bust in a large medallion, supported by a female figure representing Botany, accompanied by Religion. The epitaph is in Latin. He refused a canonry 01 Windsor, that he migbt continue to devote himself to his parochial duties, and his favourite scientific pursuits; and as piety, truth, and virtue were the principles of his character, he lived in universal esteem to the age of eighty-four, dying at Teddington, January 4, 1761, where he was buried, under the church tower, which he had rebuilt at his own expence.
occur among the correspondents of Haller, who nevertheless held him in the highest estimation, as a philosopher and a man. As a vegetable physiologist, Dr. Hales is entitled
Dr. Hales, having been elected a fellow of the royal society in 1717, communicated to that learned body his first
essay in Vegetable Physiology, containing an account of
some experiments concerning the effect of the sun’s heat
in raising the sap. In 1727 appeared the first edition of
his “Vegetable Staticks,
” in 8vo, illustrated by plates, of
which a second edition was published in 1731, followed
afterwards by several others. This work was translated
into French by Buffon in 1735, and into Italian by a Neapolitan lady named Ardinghelli, in 1756. There are also
German and Dutch editions. The original book was, in
fact, the first volume of a work entitled “Statical Essays,
”
of which the second, relating to the circulation of the
blood in animals, was called “Hemastaticks,
” and came out
in a friendly admonition to the drinkers of gin,
brandy, and other spirituous liquors,
” which has often
been reprinted and distributed gratis, by those who consider the temporal and eternal interests of their fellow subjects rather than the increase of the revenue. His invention of a ventilator for mines, prisons, hospitals, and the
holds of ships, laid before the royal society in 1741, and
applied also to the ventilation and consequent preservation
of corn in granaries, has proved one of the most extensively useful contrivances for the preservation of health
and human life. His philosophy was not a barren accumulation for the ignorant to wonder at, or for its professor
to repose on in sottish self-sufficiency and uselessness; but
an inexhaustible bank, on which his piety and his benevolence were continually drawing. Such philosophy and
such learning alone entitle their possessors to authority or
respect, and such are the best fruits of religion. In this
instance at least they were duly honoured, both at home
and abroad. The fame of Hales was widely diffused
throughout the learned world, of which he received a most
distinguished testimony, in being elected one of the eight
foreign members of the French academy of sciences, in
1753, in the place of sir Hans Sloane, who died that same
year. In 1732 he had been appointed, by the British government, a trustee for settling a colony in Georgia. He
was well acquainted with Mr. Ellis, and other naturalists of
his day, with whose views and pursuits of all kinds he ardently concurred; but it does not appear that his foreign
correspondence was extensive. His name does not occur
among the correspondents of Haller, who nevertheless held
him in the highest estimation, as a philosopher and a man.
As a vegetable physiologist, Dr. Hales is entitled to the
highest honour. His experiments and remarks led the
way to those of Du Hamel, Bonnet, and all that have followed. His accuracy of observation, and fidelity of relation, have never been impeached, and his ideas in physics,
in many instances, went before the knowledge of his day,
and anticipated future discoveries: such are his observations relative to airs, and to vegetable secretions. One of
his more able successors in the study of vegetable physiology has doubted the accuracy of one of his plates only,
tab. 11, in which three trees, having been united by engrafting their branches, the intermediate one, by the earth
being removed from its roots, is left hanging in the air,
but an experiment of the late Dr. Hope’s at Edinburgh,
upon three willows, of which Dr. Smith was an eye-witness,
and which was conducted with success in imitation of this
of Hales, puts his account beyond all doubt whatever.
ath, and preserved his senses and composure to the last moment, meeting death with the calmness of a philosopher, and what is transcendently superior, the lively faith of a
Thus honoured by sovereigns, revered by men of literature, and esteemed by all Europe, he had it in his power
to have held the highest rank in the republic of letters.
Yet, declining all the tempting offers which were made to
him, he continued at Gottingen, anxiously endeavouring
to extend the rising fame of that medical school. But
after seventeen years residence there, an ill state of health
rendering him less fit for the duties of the important office which he held, he solicited and obtained permission
from the regency of Hanover to return to his native city of
Berne. His fellow-citizens, who might at first have fixed
inm among themselves, with no less honour than advantage
to their city, were now as sensible as others of his superior
merit. A pension was settled upon him for life, and he
was nominated at different times to fill the most important
offices in the state. These occupations, however, did not
diminish his ardour for useful improvements. He was the
first president, as well as the greatest promoter, of the
economical society at Bern; and may he considered as the
father and founder of the orphan hospital of that city.
Declining health at length restrained his exertions in the
more active scenes of life, and for many years he was
confined entirely to his own house. But even this could
not put a period to his studies; he continued his favourite
employment of writing till within a few days of his death,
and preserved his senses and composure to the last moment, meeting death with the calmness of a philosopher,
and what is transcendently superior, the lively faith of a
Christian. His last words were addressed to the physician
who attended him. “My friend,
” said he to M. Rosselet,
u the artery no longer beats," and immediately he expired, at the age of sixty-nine years, on the 12th of December, 1777.
“Discourse of the nature, kinds, and numbers of our Saviour’s Miracles” his “Immorality of the Moral Philosopher,” and his “Consistent Christian,” against the infidel writers,
, a dissenting clergyman, was born
at Exeter in 1692, and educated under the care of Mr.
Pierce, who was assistant to his father Mr. Hallet, minister
of a congregation of protestant dissentars in that city. Joseph was ordained in 1713, and in 1722 he succeeded his
father as joint-minister with Mdf. Pierce. Prior to this
event he had engaged in the controversy, then warmly
carried on in the west of England, concerning the Trinity;
and in 1720, adopted the principles of Dr. Clarke, which
he demonstrated in a treatise entitled “The Unity of God
not inconsistent with the Divinity of Christ; being remarks
upon Dr. Waterland’s Vindication, relating to the Unity of
God, and the Object of Worship.
” He published other
pieces on the same subject; but his reputation is chiefly
founded on his work entitled “A free and impartial Study
of the Holy Scriptures recommended, being notes on some
peculiar texts, with discourses and observations,
” Discourse of the nature, kinds, and numbers of our Saviour’s Miracles
” his
“Immorality of the Moral Philosopher,
” and his “Consistent Christian,
” against the infidel writers, Woolston,
Morgan, and Chubb. Mr. Hallet died in 1744.
, an eminent English philosopher and astronomer, was born at Haggerston, in the parish of St.
, an eminent English philosopher and astronomer, was born at Haggerston, in the parish of St. Leonard, Shoreditch, near London, October 29, 1656. His father, a wealthy soap-boiler in Winchester-street, put him to St. Paul’s school, under the learned Dr. Thomas Gale, but his h'rst tutor is said to have been his father’s apprentice, who taught him writing and arithmetic at nine years old. At school he not only excelled in all parts of classical learning, but made such uncommon progress in mathematics, that, as Wood says, he had perfectly learnt the use of the celestial globe, and could make a complete dial; and we are informed by Halley himself, that he observed the change of the variation of the magnetic needle at London, in 1672, that is, one year before he left school. In 1673 he was entered a commoner of Queers-college, in Oxford, where he applied himself to practical and geometrical astronomy, in which he was greatly assisted by a curious apparatus of instruments which his father, willing to encourage his son’s genius, had purchased for him. At nineteen he began to publish new observations and discoveries, and continued to do so to the end of a very long life; nor did he distinguish himself less in the practical part of the science. Several observations made by him concerning a spot in the sun, seen at Oxford in July and August 1676, were published, with others by Flamsteed upon the same subject, in the Philosophical Transactions. By these the motion of the sun round its own axis, a phenomenon till then not well ascertained, was finally determined. The same year he likewise observed there, on Aug. 21, a.n occultation of Mars by the Moon, which he made use of afterwards, with others, in settling the longitude of the Cape of Good Hope against the objections of the French astronomers.
, a very learned French philosopher and divine, was born at Vire in Lower Normandy, 1624. He passed
, a very learned French
philosopher and divine, was born at Vire in Lower Normandy, 1624. He passed through his first studies at Caen,
and his course of rhetoric and philosophy at Paris. At
eighteen he wrote a treatise, in which he explained, in a,
very simple manner, and by one or two figures, Theodosius’s three books upon spherics; to which he added a tract
upon trigonometry, extremely short, yet perspicuous, and
designed as an introduction to astronomy. In one of his
latter works he observes, that he was prompted by the vanity natural to a young man to publish this book: but, as
Fontenelle remarks, there are few persons of that age
capable of such an instance of vanity. At nineteen he entered himself in the congregation of the oratory, where he
continued ten years, and left it in order to be curate of
Neuilli upon the Marne. He applied in the mean time intensely to study, and acquired much reputation' by publishing works upon astronomy and philosophy. In 1666,
Colbert proposed to Lewis XIV. a scheme, which was approved by his majesty, for establishing a royal academy of
sciences; and appointed our author secretary of it. In
1668, he attended M. Colbert de Croissy, plenipotentiary
for the peace at Aix la Chapelle; and, upon the conclusion of it, accompanied him in his embassy to England,
where he formed an acquaintance with the most eminent
persons of this nation, particularly with Boyle, Hay, and
Willis. Thence he went over to Holland, and returned to
France, having made a great number of useful observations
in his travels. In 1678 his “Philosophia Vetus etNova, ad
usum scholae aceommodatain regia Burgundia pertractata,
”
was printed at Paris in 4 vols. 12mo; and, in 1681, enlarged and reprinted there in six. This work, which was
done by the order of M. Colbert, contains a judicious collection of the ancient and modern opinions in philosophy.
Several years after its publication, the Jesuits carried it
to the East-Indies, and taught it with success; and father
Bovet, a missionary in China, wrote to Europe, that when
his brethren and himself engaged in drawing up a system of
philosophy in the Tartarian language for the emperor, one
of their chief aids was Du Hamel’s “Philosophia e't Astronomia;
” and they were then highly valued, though the
improvements in philosophy since his time have rendered
them of little use. In 1697 he resigned his place of secretary of the royal academy of sciences, which by his recommendation he procured for M. de Fontenelle. He had
some years before this devoted himself to divinity, and
published various works in that science. However, he did
not entirely resign his former studies, but published at
Paris, in 1698, “Regiae Scientiarum Academiae Historia,
”
4to, in four books; which, being much liked, he afterwards augmented with two books more. It contains an
account of the foundation of the royal academy of sciences,
and its transactions, from 1666 to 1700, and is now the
most useful of any of his works relating to philosophy; as
perhaps the most useful which he published in theology is
his last work printed at Paris, 1706, in folio, and entitled
“Biblia Sacra Vulgatae editionis, una cum selectis ex optimis quib usque interpretibus notis, prolegomenis, novis
tabulis chronologicis et geographicis.
”
or of natural philosophy; and received at their first publication, as the work of an acute and sound philosopher. In every office, whether ecclesiastical or otherwise, he seems
Dr. Hamilton’s works have lately been collected and
published by his son, in 1809, 2 vols. 8vo. The first contains his treatise on conic sections already mentioned; the
second, “An Essay on the existence and attributes of the
Supreme Being;
” “An Essay on the permission of Evil;
”
three philosophical essays on the ascent of vapours, the
aurora borealis, and the principles of mechanics;“Remarks and hints on the improvement of Barometers;
” “On
the power of fixed alkaline salts to preserve flesh from putrefaction;
” and “Four introductory Lectures on Natural
Philosophy,
” written originally in discharge of his duty as
professor of natural philosophy; and received at their first
publication, as the work of an acute and sound philosopher.
In every office, whether ecclesiastical or otherwise, he
seems to have been anxious to perform all the duties it
imposed with fidelity and care.
During the short interval between his arrival in England and his death, this respectable philosopher and naturalist was occupied in ordering and classifying his
During the short interval between his arrival in England and his death, this respectable philosopher and naturalist was occupied in ordering and classifying his numerous manuscripts, which had been conveyed from Naples to Palermo, at the time of his removal; and from the latter place to London, on his return to England. These manuscripts consisted of eight large boxes; four of which contained his correspondence with Father Anthony, and the other four, the valuable papers which the latter had bequeathed to him. Jt was his intention, alter a due arrangement, to favour the public with two works collected from their contents, one of which was to exhibit a series of original observations on the best monuments of art in the Museum of Portici; and the other, a series of historical anecdotes concerning its literary and economical administration, from its first establishment, of both which there is a prospect of publication.
es of authors prefixed to the “Dunciad.” He had even attained so much character both as a poet and a philosopher, that the “Essay on Man” was at first attributed to him. It
With Pope, Harte appears to have been on very intimate terms, and we find his encomiastic lines among the
testimonies of authors prefixed to the “Dunciad.
” He
had even attained so much character both as a poet and a
philosopher, that the “Essay on Man
” was at first attributed to him. It may not be impertinent to introduce here
an anecdote, related by Dr. Warton, who was very intimate with Harte. " Pope told Mr. Harte, that in order to
disguise his being the author of the second epistle of the
Essay on Man, he made, in the first edition, the following
bad rhyme:
, refers them to April 1616. Yet with a patience and caution, peculiarly characteristic of the sound philosopher, he withheld his opinions from the world, until reiterated experiment
, an eminent English physician,
who first discovered the circulation of the blood, was born
of a. good family at Folkstone, in Kent, April 2, 156^.
At ten years of age he was sent to the grammar-school at
Canterbury, and at fourteen removed thence to Caius college, in Cambridge, where he spent about six years in
the study of logic and natural philosophy, as preparatory
to the study of physic. He then travelled through France
and Germany, to Padua in Italy; where, having studied
physic under Minadous, Fabricius ab Aquapendente, and
Casserius, he was created doctor of physic and surgery in
that university, 1602. He had a particular regard for Fabricius, often quotes him in terms of the highest respect;
and declares, that he was the more willing to publish his
book, “De Motu Cordis,
” because Fabricius, who had
learnedly and accurately delineated in a particular treatise
almost all the parts of animals, had left the heart alone
untouched. Soon after, returning to England, he was incorporated M. D. at Cambridge, and went to London to
practise, and married. In 1604, he was admitted candidate of the college of physicians in London; and three
years after fellow, and physician to St. Bartholomew’s hospital. In 1615, he was appointed lecturer of anatomy and
surgery in that college; and the year after read a course of
lectures there, the original ms. of which is extant in the
British Museum, and is entitled, “Prcelectiones anatom.
universal, per me Gulielmum Harvaeiunu medicum Londinensem, anat. & chirurg. professorem.
” This appointment of lecturer was probably the more immediate cause
of the publication of his grand discovery of the circulation
of the I id. The date of this promulgation is not absolutely a -tained: it is commonly said that he first disclosed is opinion on the subject in 1619; but the index
of his ms, containing the propositions on which the doctrine is founded, refers them to April 1616. Yet with a
patience and caution, peculiarly characteristic of the sound
philosopher, he withheld his opinions from the world, until
reiterated experiment had amply confirmed his doctrine,
and had enabled him to demonstrate it in detail, and to
advance every proof of its truth of which the subject is
capable.
Linnæus happening to speak of Palestine, one of the most important and interesting countries to the philosopher as well as the divine, but of whose productions we had less
In one of his botanical lectures in 1747, Linnæus happening to speak of Palestine, one of the most important and interesting countries to the philosopher as well as the divine, but of whose productions we had less knowledge than of those of India, the zeal of young Hasselquist became instantly excited. In vain did his preceptor, secretly delighted with his enthusiasm, represent to him the difficulties of the undertaking, the distance, the dangers, the expence, and above all the weak state of his own health, particularly of his lungs. Hasselquist’s first step was to solicit assistance to defray the expences of his journey, but the whole he obtained is represented as far inadequate to his undertaking. He began, however, to learn the oriental tongues, at the same time that he was completing his academical studies, reading lectures, and obtaining the degree of licentiate in physic. The faculty, considering his merit and circumstances, Would not aliow him to he at any expence on this occasion, any more than for his attendance on the lectures of the professors. The degree of doctor of physic was afterwards conferred on him during his absence at Cairo, March 8th, 75!, with the same honourable and delicate attention to his peculiar situation. In the spring of 1749 he went to Stockholm, read lectures on botany there during the summer, and so far recommended himself to public notice, that the company of merchants trailing to the Levant, offered him a free passage to Smyrna in one of their ships, in which he set sail August 7th, arriving at Smyrna on the 27th of November, 1749. He kept a regular journal f his voyage. Touching at Gottenburgh, he there met Toreen, just returned from China with abundance of treasures for his master Linnæus, in whose works they have at various times been communicated to the public.